Profitability - what is it and how to calculate it? The concept of profitability of an enterprise and its main indicators Stocks and their profitability

income profit profitability

Commercial activity is not complete without such a category as profit. The very word "commerce" is already closely connected in the minds of people with this concept. The classic and simple definition of profit is as follows: profit - is defined as the difference between total revenue and total costs.

Before organizing any commercial activity, the entrepreneur is trying to calculate how profitable, which means that this project will be profitable, since making a profit is the main goal of any commercial organization. However, from the point of view of the Anglo-American financial school, which has received worldwide recognition, the priority in the activities of the enterprise is specifically the maximization of the income of the owners. This is due to the need for optimal distribution and use of the company's financial resources to ensure maximum market value. Such a rational approach will ensure the income of the owners.

The enterprise has different directions of profit distribution (Fig. 1.1) In turn, the income of the organization is recognized as an increase in economic benefits as a result of the receipt of assets ( Money, other property) and (or) repayment of obligations, leading to an increase in the capital of this organization, with the exception of contributions from participants (property owners). Only part of the profit remaining after paying taxes and payments to the budget is directed to the development of the enterprise and is called net profit.

An enterprise may have revenue, but this does not mean that it also receives profit. To identify the financial result, it is necessary to compare revenue with the costs of production and sale, that is, with the cost of production. The company makes a profit if the revenue exceeds the cost. In a situation where revenue is equal to cost, it is only possible to recover the costs of production and sale of products. The costs for the purchase and delivery of raw materials are covered, wages are distributed to workers, but there is no profit in this situation, but the enterprise has no debts. If the costs exceed the revenue, then the company receives a loss, a negative financial result, which puts it in a difficult situation. financial position, debt obligations, and bankruptcy is not excluded. Naturally, the organization seeks to improve its position as quickly as possible and rehabilitate itself in the market as much as possible.

So we see that profit is a kind of benchmark for the enterprise and has a number of functions. In addition to the fact that profit characterizes the economic effect, it also performs a stimulating function, as it is the basis for the expansion of production, scientific, technical and social development, material incentives for employees. Also, profit is one of the main sources of formation of budgets of different levels.

Profit is an absolute indicator of profitability, since absolute indicators allow us to analyze the dynamics of various profit indicators over several years. At the same time, it should be noted that in order to obtain the most objective results, indicators should be calculated taking into account inflationary processes. Profit is formed from several components:

§Profit from the sale of products (sales) Pr - is the difference between the sales proceeds Vr and the costs of production and marketing of products (full cost) Zpr, the amount of value added tax (VAT), excises AKC:

Pr \u003d Vr - Zpr - VAT - AKC.

§profit from other sales (Ppr) is the profit received from the sale of fixed assets and other property, waste, intangible assets. It is defined as the difference between the proceeds from the sale (Vpr) and the costs of this implementation (Zr):

Ppr \u003d Vpr - Zr.

§profit from non-operating operations is the difference between income from non-operating operations (Dvn) and expenses on non-operating operations (Rvn):

Pvn = Dvn - Rvn

It is worth noting that a distinction is made between accounting and economic profit. Economic profit is the difference between total revenue and external and internal costs. Profit, determined on the basis of accounting data, is the difference between income from various kinds activities and external costs.

In a market economy, it is necessary to properly manage profits, use it not for consumption, but for investment, innovation and maintaining competitiveness. The amount of profit depends on the production, supply, marketing and financial activities enterprises. Such an indicator as profit says a lot about the efficiency of the enterprise, but there is also the concept of profitability. It is associated with the relative expression of these indicators and plays a role in the analysis of the enterprise. Profit and profitability of the enterprise are directly interconnected.

Yield indicators:

1. The sum of all income of the enterprise (thousand rubles):

∑∂ = 2110 + 2310 + 2320 +2340 ± 2430 ± 2450 ± 2460

2. Return on assets:

Shows how much the company received total income from each ruble invested in assets.

3. The sum of all expenses:

∑ρ = 2120 + 2210 + 2220 + 2330 + 2350 + 2410 ± 2430 ± 2450 ± 2460

4. Profitability of expenses:

where is profit before tax.

Shows how many kopecks of total profit the company receives from each ruble of total expenses.

5. Profitability of expenses:

If< 1, то финансовый результат убыток.

6. The share of revenue in the composition of total income:

Shows how much revenue is in the composition of all received income of the enterprise. If > 50%, this means that the company receives income related to the operating activities of the enterprise.

Business Activity Indicators

V broad sense business activity means the whole range of efforts of the company aimed at its promotion in the markets of products, labor, capital. In a narrower sense, business activity is expressed in the dynamic development of the organization, in the speed of achieving its goals.

In the financial aspect, business activity is manifested, first of all, in the turnover of the property of the enterprise and its components.

Turnover is characterized by two indicators:

The turnover ratio shows the number of turnovers that the assets of the enterprise and its components made during the analyzed period;

The period of full turnover is the average period for which the company returns the funds invested in assets and their components.

1. Turnover of assets (property, capital).

1.1. Asset turnover ratio (property, capital):

where V- revenue;

Average value of assets;

The average value of the property;

The average value of capital.

1.2. Period of full turnover of assets:

where D- the analyzed period in days.

2. Turnover of current assets.

2.1. Current assets turnover ratio:

where is the average value of current assets.

2.2. Period of turnover of current assets:

Attraction (release) of current assets as a result of slowdown (acceleration) from turnover:

where t1 and t0- the period of turnover of current assets of the reporting and previous years.

The result with a minus sign indicates the acceleration of the turnover of current assets and their release from circulation. The result with a plus sign indicates a slowdown in the turnover of current assets and their additional attraction into circulation.

3. Inventory turnover.

3.1. Inventory turnover ratio:

where s pr.- cost of sales;

Average inventory..

3.2. Inventory turnover period:

4. Receivables turnover.

4.1. Accounts receivable turnover ratio:

where is the average value of accounts receivable.

4.2. Accounts receivable turnover period:

This indicator tells how many days, on average, debtors repay their debts.

5. Accounts payable turnover.

5.1. Accounts payable turnover ratio:

where - the average value of accounts payable;

Full cost of sales.

5.2. Accounts payable turnover period:

This indicator tells how many days, on average, the company repays its debts.

HELL. Sheremet, as part of the analysis of business activity, recommends calculating the return on assets.

1. Capital productivity of fixed assets:

where V- revenue;

The average value of fixed assets according to form No. 5 ..

This indicator tells how much revenue in value terms the company receives from each ruble invested in fixed assets.

2. Return on assets of the active part of fixed assets:

This indicator tells how much revenue in value terms the company receives from each ruble invested in machinery, equipment and vehicles.

Also, for the analysis of business activity, the ratio of receivables and payables is considered.

Other indicators are calculated:

1. The duration of the operating (production and commercial) cycle:

Shows how many days, on average, the financial resources of the enterprise are immobilized in stocks and receivables.

2. The duration of the financial cycle:

Among the qualitative indicators of business activity are:

1. current performance:

1.1. the presence of stable buyers and suppliers;

1.2. the breadth of markets for products;

1.3. product competitiveness;

1.4. business reputation;

1.5. impact on industry or regional price levels;

2. qualitative perspective indicators:

2.1. acquisition of new high-tech equipment;

2.2. modernization of production technology;

2.3. attraction of highly qualified personnel;

2.4. active participation in government programs and obtaining promising profitable orders.

To characterize business activity, the coefficient of sustainability of economic growth is calculated:

where P- profit;

dip- dividends and interest on securities;

average value equity.

This coefficient shows the rate at which the equity capital increases or decreases in the course of the economic activity of the enterprise.

The coefficient is equal to the ratio of balance sheet profit to the average cost of the main production and normalized working capital. In other words, the indicator represents the amount of profit attributable to each ruble of the cost of goods sold (production costs).

Profitability of production - what shows

Reflects the economic performance of a business or its division. The profitability of production shows how effectively the property of the enterprise is used.

Profitability of production - formula

The formula for calculating the coefficient

Calculation formula according to the new financial statements

Profitability of production - value

The increase in value is due to:

• with a reduction in production costs,
• with an increase product quality,
• with an increase in profits.

A decrease may indicate:

• promotion production cost,
• deterioration in product quality,
• deterioration in the use of production assets.

Average statistical values ​​by years for Russian enterprises

Table values ​​are calculated based on Rosstat data

Values ​​calculated according to the formula: p.2200 / p.2120

Profitability of production - scheme

Synonyms

• profitability of production

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The chapter gives an idea of: what indicators evaluate the effectiveness of the enterprise; what are the indicators of profitability (equity, total investments, sales), as well as profitability; how to calculate the price indicator borrowed money and use it in profitability assessment; what factors determine the level of profitability of investments in the enterprise.

As you know, the efficiency of any enterprise depends on its ability to generate the necessary profit. This ability can be assessed by analyzing financial results, during which answers to the following questions should be obtained:

• how stable are the incomes received and the expenses incurred;
• what elements of the income statement can be used to predict financial results;
• how productive are the costs incurred;
• what is the efficiency of capital investment in this enterprise;
• how effective is the management of the enterprise.

The analysis of profitability of the enterprise is carried out primarily on the basis of information in the income statement. It is important to note here that the Regulation on accounting and financial reporting in Russian Federation the concepts of those indicators of financial results that are used in the analysis have been clarified. Thus, the Regulation introduces the concept of accounting profit (loss), which is the final financial result identified for the reporting period based on the accounting of all business transactions and the assessment of balance sheet items according to the rules adopted in accordance with the Regulation.

At the same time, the concept of balance sheet profit is excluded from the Regulations. In the balance sheet, the financial result of the reporting period is reflected as retained earnings (uncovered loss), i.e. the final financial result revealed for the reporting period, minus taxes paid from profit in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation and other similar obligatory payments, including sanctions for non-compliance with taxation rules.

The analysis of financial results in its conclusions is based on the profit indicator, which is revealed according to accounting data. In this regard, a number of problems arise that should be taken into account in the analysis.

First of all, it should be borne in mind that the definition of profit depends on the accounting policy of the enterprise and the current accounting methodology. Thus, the transition to accounting for sold products not at the time of its payment, but at the time of its shipment, led to the fact that the calculation base of income and expenses changed due to the balances of shipped and unpaid products.

Changed the structure of the components of the report and the abandonment of the previously existing procedure for the formation of the cost, which provides for the inclusion in the cost of sales of products only those expenses that were recognized for tax purposes.

In addition, the assessment of the components of the financial results of the enterprise depends on the choice of its management financial policy. In this case, we are talking about the possibility of maneuver (for example, in terms of the distribution of costs between finished products and work in progress, writing off deferred expenses, creating reserves), which allows you to manage the amount of financial results of both the current and future periods.

It is also necessary to take into account the new approaches enshrined in the Accounting Regulations PBU 9/99 "Income of the organization" and PBU 10/99 "Expenses of the organization", for the first time in domestic practice regulating the formation of two concepts for accounting purposes "income of the organization" and "organization costs".

So, according to PBU 9/99, revenue is recognized in accounting if the following conditions are met:

• the organization has the right to receive this revenue, arising from a specific contract or otherwise confirmed as appropriate;
• the amount of proceeds can be determined;
• there is confidence that as a result of a particular operation there will be an increase in the economic benefits of the organization. Such assurance exists when the entity has received an asset in payment, or there is no uncertainty as to whether the asset will be received;
• the right of ownership (possession, use, disposal) of the products has passed from the organization to the buyer or the work has been accepted by the customer (the service has been rendered);
• the costs incurred or to be incurred in connection with this transaction can be determined.

If at least one of the above conditions is not met in relation to cash and other assets received as payment, then accounts payable are recognized in accounting, and not revenue.

This list of conditions complies with the requirements of International Financial Reporting Standards.

According to PBU 10/99 "Expenses of the organization", the conditions for recognition of expenses in accounting are as follows:

• the expense is made in accordance with a specific contract, the requirements of legislative and regulatory acts, business customs;
• the amount of the expense can be determined;
• there is confidence that as a result of specific operations there will be a decrease in the economic benefits of the organization. Such assurance arises when the entity has transferred the asset or there is no uncertainty in the transfer of the asset.

PBU 10/99 introduced separate rules for the recognition of expenses in the income statement.

The first rule concerns the matching of income and expenses. The second rule establishes the need for a reasonable distribution of expenses between reporting periods, when expenses cause income for several periods and when the relationship between income and expenses cannot be clearly determined or is determined indirectly. According to the third rule, regardless of the previous rules, they are subject to recognition in reporting period expenses when it becomes certain that they will not receive economic benefits.

The noted main problems associated with the use of income statement data make it necessary to conduct an analysis in two stages: at the first stage, the analyst should have a clear understanding of the principles of income and cost formation in the enterprise (the main information for this should be an explanatory note, disclosing the accounting policy of the enterprise, all the facts of its change and the impact of these changes on the reporting); the second stage is the actual analysis of the income statement.

An analysis of the profitability of an enterprise (profit and loss statement) usually includes:

• structural analysis of the report, identification of factors - stable and random;
• assessment of the "quality" of the obtained financial result and forecasting of future results;
• profitability analysis.

In the course of the structural analysis, the main ratios associated with the receipt of proceeds from the sale, and the costs incurred for this purpose, are clarified. Information for the analysis of sales, necessary for making forecasts for the next period (periods), is available in full only to an internal analyst. In the course of such an analysis, it should be established: what are the main elements of obtaining revenue; how dependent is demand on product prices (i.e., elasticity of demand); whether the enterprise has the opportunity to adapt to changes in demand by modifying products or introducing new products to the market; what is the degree of concentration of buyers; how much dependence on the main buyers; what is the diversification of products by geographical markets.

For multi-industry enterprises or enterprises operating in different geographic sales markets, it is necessary to evaluate revenue information in the context of individual sales segments. The fact is that the contribution of individual segments to the total sales volume, as a rule, is different. Therefore, in order to assess the prospects of diversified enterprises, as well as the risks of their activities, it is necessary to separately analyze the income and expenses for each segment. For this purpose, segment reporting is used in international practice, recommendations for the preparation of which are contained in international standard financial statements No. 14. Russian practice provides for the reflection of information on the structure of sales in the context of individual segments in an explanatory note.

When analyzing expenses, the main problem is to make sure that income and expenses of a given period correspond. Another problem is to move away from the tax approach adopted in our country to the formation of the cost of production (works, services). It is known that Russian practice is characterized by an approach in which the state has the right to determine the possibility for enterprises to include or not include certain costs in the cost price. This approach is implemented in the Regulations on the composition of costs for the production and sale of products (works, services) included in the cost of products (works, services), and on the procedure for the formation of financial results taken into account when taxing profits.

Changes and additions to the Regulations on the composition of costs, introduced by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated July 1, 1995 No. 661, although they contain the statement that all costs incurred by the organization directly related to the production and sale of products are subject to inclusion in the cost of production, this approach is not fully supported.

At the same time, the instructions of the Ministry of Finance of Russia on the procedure for filling out forms of annual financial statements provide that when determining the cost of goods sold (works, services), one should be guided by the specified resolution. As a result, for objective reasons, the reliability of the results of the analysis of the profitability of activities carried out on the basis of the income statement data is not ensured.

This information limitation should be taken into account when conducting internal analysis financial results main task which should be an objective reflection of income and expenses in order to identify the real profitability of the enterprise.

It is recognized throughout the world that financial statements, on the basis of which external users make management decisions, should contain complete information on the costs associated with the production and sale of products, and not on that part of them that is taken into account when calculating the taxable base. It is by comparing the total amount of costs with revenue that their effectiveness is determined. Otherwise, the calculation of indicators of efficiency (profitability) of costs loses its economic meaning.

Additional information about the structure of expenses and their dynamics can be obtained by analyzing the ratios: "cost/revenue"; "sales expenses/revenues"; management costs/revenues. According to the dynamics of these ratios, conclusions are drawn about the attention paid at the enterprise to various management functions: administrative and managerial; commercial and marketing, as well as the ability of the enterprise to manage the ratio of "costs / income".

An upward trend in these ratios may indicate that the company has problems controlling costs. In this regard, it may be useful to examine expenditures item by item in order to identify reserves for their reduction. So, in the composition of management expenses, according to the Model Nomenclature of Articles, the following are distinguished: expenses for enterprise management; general running costs; taxes, fees and deductions; unproductive expenses. The analysis should distinguish between controllable and non-controllable costs in each group in order to assess the real possibility of their reduction.

The main purpose of the income statement is to forecast future earnings. To do this, it is necessary to consider each element of the report and assess the likelihood of its presence in the future.

The probability of receiving income or incurring expenses in the future is determined by their stability. Therefore, in the income statement, the analyst should highlight items that are consistently recurring and extraordinary. The need for such a division is due to the fact that for the purposes of forecasting financial results, indicators cleared of the impact of emergency operations should be used. For example, accounting profit is affected by such operations as the write-off of fixed assets from the balance sheet due to their obsolescence, the cancellation of production orders (contracts), the termination of production, the reflection of losses from natural disasters, fires, accidents, legal costs and many other facts of economic activity, are usually random.

The low probability of occurrence of these transactions in the future necessitates the refinement of the result obtained and the use of an already adjusted value in the predictive analysis.

Being rather arbitrary, this division is determined by the specific conditions of the enterprise's functioning. For example, for a bakery that sells both finished products and raw materials (flour), a recurring income item will be proceeds from both product sales and other sales; at the same time, for the same bakery, the sale of a computer or other fixed asset can be classified as a rare item. It is likely that for another enterprise, the sale of inventories may fall into the composition of rare items that are inappropriate to take into account when forecasting future income.

In this regard, it should be noted that in countries with developed market economies that have accumulated extensive experience financial analysis reporting, this issue is given great attention. Thus, GAAP contains an indication of which items should be classified as extraordinary (profit and loss items that are irregular, extremely rare) and unusual (ie, not related to normal activities).

In classifying gains and losses as extraordinary, both conditions must be met. Examples of extraordinary items include losses associated with natural disasters, changes in accounting methods, adjustments to the financial result of previous periods, and some others. In the income statement, these items are shown separately after reflecting the profit after tax indicator, and their content is disclosed in the comments to the report.

In turn, in accordance with the requirements of IFRS No. 8, it is recommended to separate the result from ordinary activities and the results of extraordinary operations as part of the financial result.

Russian regulations also indicate the need to disclose information about all material items in the income statement. One of the reasons for this requirement is to provide the analyst with correct information about the financial results of the enterprise.

Rare and extraordinary items in the profit and loss statement of Russian enterprises are usually reflected in other non-operating income and expenses. Therefore, when forecasting future income, one cannot focus only on the prevailing ratios of profit (from financial and economic activities, accounting or net) and revenue, but first one should use the data f. No. 5 and an explanatory note (for an external analyst) or analytical data to account 80 "Profit and Loss" (for an internal analyst) in order to clarify the stability of income generation and assess the "quality" of profit.

An approximate scheme for considering the obtained financial result from the standpoint of the stability of its receipt is shown in fig. 4.1.

The criterion for classifying the results of financial transactions as part of ordinary activities is also the regularity of their receipt. For example, if an enterprise has financial investments in securities of other organizations, then income from participation in other organizations will be included in the calculation of the financial result from ordinary activities.

In order to improve the reliability of financial forecasting and prepare a forecast income statement, the calculation and analysis of the dynamics of the indicator, defined as the ratio of the financial result from ordinary activities to revenue, are used.

As noted earlier, all significant items that fall into the composition of extraordinary items must be disclosed in the explanatory notes to the financial statements.

Another method for assessing the "quality" of the resulting net profit (net profit is considered as the final characteristic of the growth of equity) is the analysis of the dynamics of internal indicators of profitability: "sales result/revenue"; "result from financial and economic activity/revenue"; "result of the reporting year/revenue"; "net profit/revenue". Obviously, each successive indicator is influenced by an increasing number of factors. Bearing in mind that the last indicator is general, the calculation of intermediate indicators is used to better understand the reasons for its change. The purpose of such an analysis is to confirm the stability of obtaining this net income from each ruble of sales.

There are other, deeper methods of analyzing the "quality" of the financial result. Earlier (Chapter 1) there was an inextricable link between the chosen method of estimating balance sheet items and the financial result. The general rule is that understatement of one or another item of an asset leads to an underestimation of the financial result, "inflating" balance sheet items artificially overestimates it. Therefore, the evaluation of the "quality" of the obtained financial result should be based on the results of the analysis of assets by their risk categories: the higher the share of high-risk assets, the lower the "quality" of profit.

An example of this is accounts receivable, which is a key factor affecting the "quality" of the financial results obtained. The receivables of buyers, which are unlikely to be collected, although they participate in the formation of profit and loss indicators, indicate a low "quality" of profit. Accordingly, the greater its share in total receivables, the lower the "quality" of profit.

Another example of the influence of the valuation of an asset item on the result is the item "Work in progress". The use of various methods for its assessment and distribution of costs between products that are completed (finished) and have not undergone full processing, i.e., work in progress, leads to the fact that the financial result may be overestimated or underestimated.

As already noted, effective activity is the ability of an enterprise to make a profit. There are some ratios of indicators necessary for the normal functioning of the enterprise. So, the cost of production should be in a satisfactory ratio to the volume of sales, revenue - in an acceptable ratio to the invested capital, etc. This largely determines the main value criteria of a profitable enterprise. Based on an analysis of the current state of such criteria and the emerging trends in their change, measures are developed that are necessary to stabilize favorable trends or, conversely, to eliminate unfavorable ones. For example, if the amount of profit received is insufficient, attention is paid to the need to increase the volume of sales, changes in sales prices and other sales factors, as well as excessively high costs, low capital turnover, etc. The actual causes of these adverse phenomena can only be determined by analyzing the state of the main indicators profitability.

In general, the profitability of any enterprise can be assessed using absolute and relative indicators. The indicators of the first group allow us to analyze the dynamics of various indicators of profit (accounting, net, retained) over a number of years, or, in other words, to conduct a "horizontal" analysis. However, such calculations make more arithmetic than economic sense (unless appropriate methods of converting them into comparable prices and accounting methodology are used).

The indicators of the second group are different ratios of profit and invested capital or profit and costs incurred. The first ratio is called the profitability, the second - the profitability of the activity.

In general, profitability is understood as the ratio of profit received for a certain period to the amount of capital invested in the enterprise. The economic meaning of the value of this indicator is that it characterizes the profit received by capital investors from each ruble of funds (own or borrowed) invested in the enterprise.

Depending on the direction of investment of funds, the form of raising capital, as well as the purposes of calculation, various indicators of profitability are used. Let's consider the main ones.

Return on assets (property) \u003d Profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise / Average value of assets * 100

There is another formula for calculating this indicator. It is believed that since both own and borrowed capital, then the numerator of the formula should reflect the total income received by capital investors, i.e., the total profit. In this case, the formula takes the form of the weighted average cost of capital formula. Its other name is the profitability of total capital investments. This indicator characterizes the profit received by the enterprise from each ruble invested in assets.

For analytical purposes, the profitability of both the entire set of assets and current assets is determined:
Return on current assets \u003d Profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise / Average value of current assets * 100

If the activity of the enterprise is focused on the future, then it is necessary to develop an investment policy. Information about the funds invested in the enterprise can be obtained from the balance sheet as the sum of equity and long-term liabilities (or, which is the same, as the difference between the total amount of assets and short-term liabilities).

The indicator reflecting the efficiency of the use of funds invested in the enterprise is the return on investment:

Return on investment = Profit (before taxes) / Balance sheet - Current liabilities * 100

This indicator is mainly used to assess the effectiveness of management at an enterprise, characterize its ability to provide the necessary return on invested capital, and determine the calculation base for forecasting.

The indicator of return on investment is considered in the foreign practice of financial analysis as a way to assess the "mastery" of investment management. At the same time, it is considered that, since the company's management cannot influence the amount of income tax paid, for the purpose of a more reasonable approach to calculating the indicator, the amount of profit before tax is used in the numerator.

The use of the return on investment indicator as a basis for forecasting is based on establishing the established ratios of the financial result and invested capital. Such calculations can be made after carrying out a structural analysis of the income statement and identifying stable sources of income.

Capital investors (shareholders) invest their funds in an enterprise in order to receive a return on investment, therefore, from the point of view of shareholders, the best assessment of the results of economic activity is the presence of a return on invested capital. The indicator of profit on the capital invested by shareholders (owners), also called the return on equity, is determined by the formula

Return on equity \u003d Profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise / Equity value * 100

Bearing in mind the particular importance of this indicator for assessing the financial position of an enterprise, attention should be paid to the method of its calculation. The numerator of formula 4.1 is the profit of the owners, in other words, the final balance that comes to the disposal of the enterprise after covering all costs, paying interest, taxes, fines, interest on a loan attributed to net profit, etc. The denominator reflects the capital provided owners at the disposal of the enterprise. It includes the following components: authorized capital; Extra capital; funds and reserves; retained earnings.

Since the amount of equity capital changes over time, it is necessary to choose a method for calculating it, which can be:

1. 1calculation based on data on its condition on a specific date (end of period);
2. determination of the average value for the period.

It is easy to see that for a profitable enterprise, the second option provides a higher result (it, as a rule, turns out to be more accurate, since to a certain extent it reflects the process of generating profit during the analyzed period).

The analysis should adhere to the chosen method of calculation in order to ensure a comparison of profitability indicators in dynamics.

For enterprises operating in the form joint-stock companies, there is a need to differentiate the authorized capital into the contribution of participants made by ordinary and preferred shares. Accordingly, one should distinguish between profit attributable to the entire share (own) capital, and profit paid on ordinary shares.

When calculating the latter indicator, it is necessary to keep in mind the specific conditions for issuing preferred shares. As a rule, their owners participate in the capital according to the nominal value of the shares, and in the profits received - within a fixed percentage. Then the rest of the profit belongs to the owners of ordinary shares.

However, in individual cases holders of preferred shares may be entitled to profits received in addition to a fixed percentage. Thus, in each specific situation, the conditions for issuing preferred shares should be taken into account.

In order to determine the profit due to ordinary shareholders, it is necessary, first, to exclude the share of preferred shareholders from total equity and, secondly, to exclude the amount of income on preferred shares from the total amount of income after taxes and extraordinary payments.

As a result of such preparatory actions, an indicator can be calculated

Rsk (p) \u003d Pp / SK - Kpr * 100,

where Pp is the profit due to the owners of ordinary shares;
SC - equity;
Kpr - the contribution of holders of preferred shares.

The indicator of the formula indicates the rate of return of funds generated from the contribution of the owners, who bear all the entrepreneurial risk. The latter indicator should be distinguished from the indicator of earnings on ordinary shares, which is determined by the formula

Earnings per share = Earnings attributable to ordinary shareholders / Amount of ordinary shares

The value reflected in the denominator of this formula is the time-weighted average number of issued ordinary shares, adjusted (reduced) by the amount of repurchased shares and taking into account changes in issued shares associated with their split or payment of dividends by own shares. Information for the calculation is taken from the analytical data to account 85 "Authorized capital".

This indicator in the practice of financial analysis is used as a characteristic of the share price, but it is hardly suitable as a way to assess the return on invested capital.

It would be logical to use formula 42 as an indicator of the return on equity of ordinary shareholders, since, as already noted, ordinary shareholders are entitled to their initial contribution, to participation in retained earnings and formed reserves.

The creditors of the enterprise, as well as the shareholders, expect to receive a certain income from the provision of funds to the enterprise. From the point of view of creditors, the profitability indicator (this indicator is also called the price of borrowed funds) can be calculated using the formula

Rzk = Pzk / ZK * 100

where PZK - payment for the use of borrowed funds;
ZK - funds raised on a loan basis (long-term and short-term).

The calculation of this indicator is associated with some methodological problems, primarily with the justification of the value of the indicator characterizing the amount of funds raised: it should be considered only in connection with financial debts (loans, loans) or understood as the total debts of the enterprise, including debts to suppliers, the budget, employees, etc.

In the first case, the calculation is the simplest (and least accurate), and the formula for the return on borrowed funds (the price of borrowed funds) takes the form

Return on borrowings = Interest on loans / Amount of loans * 100

This method of calculation is justified if the financial debts of the enterprise constitute a significant part of the total debt.

With a more accurate calculation, debt is understood broadly. Then, to determine the profitability of borrowed funds, it will be necessary to involve information on the amount of borrowed funds (long-term and short-term) and the cost of their attraction, including, in addition to direct interest payments, the amount of commissions, discounts, expenses and losses associated with late payment.

The next question that arises when calculating the return on borrowed funds is related to the time factor: to determine the amount of debt as of a specific date or for a certain period? This issue has already been discussed when considering the return on equity. The general rule should be to ensure the comparability of these indicators: if the analysis uses the average value of equity, then the amount of borrowed funds should also be an average value.

Once again, we draw attention to the possible significant discrepancy in the results depending on the chosen calculation method.

The resulting value was twice as high as previously calculated, when the reduction in funding during the period was not taken into account. Thus, we are once again convinced that the cost of a loan, as a rule, does not coincide with the interest rate, and often its changes are not even directly proportional to fluctuations in the interest rate on current loans.

Certain difficulties are presented by the calculation of the numerator of formula 4.6, which is largely due to the imperfection (non-analyticity) of the current accounting base.

The amount of debt service costs can be determined using information from the loan agreement on the interest rate, the procedure for repaying the loan and the term for paying interest. Since accounts 90 "Short-term loans of banks", 92 "Long-term loans of banks" and others do not open separate sub-accounts on which the amounts of accrued interest would be shown, in order to determine their amount, it is necessary to attract analytical transcripts to account 26 "General business expenses" and other accounts .

Interest expenses arising from settlements with suppliers, in the simplest case, represent the amount of a penalty for late payment of delivered inventory items.

The contract for the supply of products may also provide for the dependence of the amount of payment on the settlement period (high inflation is forcing an increasing number of enterprises to include this condition in the contract). For example, the buyer must transfer to the supplier an amount in the amount of: the contract price for the products - if it is paid within two weeks from the date of invoicing (shipment, etc.); contractual price +10% - in case of payment in a month; contract price +20% - in two months, etc. Let's say the settlement period was 2 months (60 days). The enterprise transferred to the supplier 20% of the cost in excess of the initial contractual cost. This 20% represents an unused opportunity to reduce the amount paid to the supplier and is the price of the supplier's credit. For reference: the annual interest rate for the conditions of the considered example will be (%):
20%-360 / 60 - 14 = 156,5

Thus, in order to estimate the cost of supplier credit, the difference between the actual amount of payment and the amount that the enterprise could have paid in the case of the earliest settlement should be calculated.

The main source of information for these calculations is the supply contract, since in accounting the amount of lost profit is not allocated, but is included in the total amount of funds paid to the supplier.

The source of information about the funds transferred to the budget for the late payment of taxes (considered in accordance with the current legislation as a form of lending to the enterprise by the state) is a certificate from the accounting department on the calculation of taxes payable.

When determining the profitability of borrowed funds, the influence of the tax factor on it should be taken into account. It is known that for tax purposes, the cost of paying interest on loans is accepted within the discount rate Central Bank Russian Federation, increased by 3 points. Due to this, the price of borrowed funds decreases for the enterprise according to the calculation

Rate within which interest is charged to cost for tax purposes * (1 - Income tax rate)

Interest on credit provided by suppliers also reduces the taxable base (taxable profit). However, the following should be kept in mind. Interest paid to the supplier of inventory items is integral part the actual cost of their procurement (excluding fines, penalties and other sanctions for violation of the terms of business contracts that relate to non-operating results). Consequently, they will be included in the cost of production only after the material values ​​are released into production. Then, taking into account the tax factor, the cost of the supplier's loan will be determined based on the following calculation:

Interest on commodity credit * (1 - Income tax rate).

For the example considered earlier (with an annual interest rate on a commodity loan, excluding tax, of 156.5% and an income tax rate of 35%), the annual interest rate for a loan for an enterprise will actually be 101.7%.

In conclusion, we note that the indicator of profitability of borrowed funds characterizes the effectiveness of the activities of creditors (lenders) only at the level of the enterprise that attracts these funds. In reality, the level of profitability of their activities will be different, since the calculation of this indicator did not take into account the taxation of the income of creditors (lenders). However, this aspect is of interest and, therefore, will be taken into account already in the analysis of the activities of creditors.

Now let's determine the profitability of total capital investments (total capital employed), for which we need information about its value, the costs associated with raising borrowed funds, and the amount of profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise.

The amount of capital used can be obtained as:

1. the sum of long-term (non-current) assets at residual value and current assets, i.e. the sum of the results of sections I and II of the asset balance, with the exception of items of settlements with the founders (for contributions to the authorized capital), own shares purchased from shareholders;
2. the sum of long-term (non-current) and net current assets. The value of net current assets is obtained by excluding current liabilities from the sum of the results of section II of the asset balance (current assets);
3. the value of the currency (total) of the balance.

In this case, either the indicator of used capital is calculated as of a specific date (as a rule, at the end of the period), or its average value is determined.

In the first method of calculation, the basis for determining the total capital is the value of the property of the enterprise, the source of which is the funds attracted both on a long-term and short-term basis. Substituting this value into the denominator of formula 4.7, we obtain the profitability indicator of property (assets).

The second approach assumes that, by definition, capital is long-term financing. Consequently, only equity and long-term borrowed capital, or, equivalently, assets minus current liabilities, should be included in the calculation.

The third method is essentially very close to the first. Differences in the calculation results appear only when there are some amounts in the enterprise's balance sheet under section III "Losses" (or there are amounts for the specified regulatory articles). Differences arise between the amount of the enterprise's property and total liabilities (liabilities exceed the amount of property) by the amount of losses incurred. In a situation where there are losses, the first method of calculating the capital used is more accurate.

The second method is usually used to assess the profitability of long-term funds. This method of calculation for other purposes is hardly justified, since it ignores the costs associated with attracting borrowed funds on a short-term basis.

There are different opinions. Some propose to include in the cost of used capital the entire amount of profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise, others - only a part of it: the amount of dividends paid and equivalent payments from net profit (as the price of equity). There is the following rationale for the fact that the sum of all profits remaining at the disposal of the enterprise appeared in the numerator of formula 4.7. The share of the owners (shareholders) of the enterprise consists of both the initial contribution to the authorized capital and the net profit formed as a result of the successful operation of the enterprise, including that part of it that remains in the enterprise's turnover for certain purposes (in the form of funds and reserves). If the owners (shareholders) consider it necessary to leave part of the profit in the turnover of the enterprise in order to satisfy its additional financial needs in this way, then they have the right to claim the appropriate income. Consequently, not only the amount of money paid to them, but also all the profit remaining at the enterprise acts as income from initial investments, otherwise it would not make sense for the owners to leave part of their income in circulation. So total cost of capital used in the enterprise must include the entire aggregate net income (less extraordinary expenses).

The relationship between the considered indicators of return on equity, borrowed funds and the return on total investments (weighted average price of capital) is expressed in a ratio called the effect financial leverage.

This indicator determines the boundary of the economic feasibility of attracting borrowed funds. The meaning of this ratio is, in particular, that while the return on investment in the enterprise is higher than the price of borrowed funds, the return on equity will grow the faster, the higher the ratio of borrowed and own funds. However, as the share of borrowed funds increases, the profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise begins to decline (an increasing part of the profit is directed to the payment of interest). As a result, the profitability of investments in the enterprise falls, becoming less than the price of borrowed funds. This, in turn, leads to a fall in the return on equity. As an illustration, we present Table. 4.1.


As you can see, with the introduction of debt capital into the structure of total liabilities, the return on equity increases the more significantly, the higher the profitability of investments in the enterprise. At the same time, the return on equity, as the share of borrowed funds increases, will fall the faster, the greater the excess of the price of borrowed funds over the return on investment.

Another fundamental point must be taken into account. In the above table, the price of borrowed funds did not change, remaining stable with a different capital structure. In real life, the situation is different: as the share of borrowed capital increases, the risk for creditors increases, and hence the price of borrowed funds due to the inclusion of a risk fee in the interest rate. To ensure the positive effect of financial leverage in these conditions, the company is forced to increase the return on investment so that this indicator can exceed the price of borrowed capital. Otherwise, the return on his own capital will begin to fall.

The profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise is correlated both with the amount of capital used (invested) and with the volume of operations performed during the period (sales volume). The first method of calculation allows you to evaluate the return on capital, the second - the return on sales. The latter is calculated by the formula

Return on sales (of products) = Profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise / Sales proceeds * 100

and shows what profit the enterprise has from each ruble of sold products. The value of this indicator varies widely depending on the field of activity of the enterprise. This is explained by the difference in the rate of turnover of funds associated with differences in the amount of capital used to carry out business operations in a given volume, in terms of lending, the amount of stocks, etc. A long turnover of capital makes it necessary to obtain more profit in order to achieve satisfactory results. . A faster turnover of capital brings the same results with a smaller amount of profit per volume of products sold.

Differences in the value of the return on sales indicator within the same industry are directly determined by the success of management in a particular enterprise.

The value of the profitability of sales is directly dependent on the capital structure of the enterprise. Obviously, other things being equal, the return on sales will be the smaller, the greater the amount of debt (and, accordingly, the payment for borrowed funds).

The dynamics of the considered indicators for the past and reporting years is shown in Table. 4.2.



Note that the analysis of the calculated profitability ratios is useful in practice only when the obtained indicators are compared with the data of previous years or similar indicators of other enterprises. Since information on the permissible value of a particular profitability indicator in our country has not yet been published, the only basis for comparison is information on the value of indicators for previous years.

At the same time, it should be remembered that a comparison of profitability indicators for several adjacent periods makes sense only on the condition that during this time the methodology for accounting for the components of the income statement and balance sheet items has not changed. Thus, the change in sales accounting made it incorrect to compare profitability indicators without their preliminary recalculation, taking into account the changed methodology. It is impossible to use the dynamic series of profitability indicators without additional adjustments and in connection with the revaluation of fixed assets, which resulted in a pronounced downward trend in the profitability indicators of most enterprises.

Table data. 4.2 allow us to draw the following conclusions. The enterprise as a whole began to use its property somewhat worse. From each ruble of funds invested in its total assets, a profit of 1.9 kopecks was received in the reporting year. less than in the previous one. Significantly decreased the efficiency of the use of working capital: instead of 42.4 kopecks. profit received from the ruble of current assets last year, the return on each ruble of funds invested in current assets in the reporting year amounted to 35.6 kopecks.

The return on equity increased by 1.6% in the reporting year. Significant for this change was a decrease in the cost of borrowed funds (by 1.7%), as well as a change in the structure of capital, i.e. an increase in the share of borrowed capital.

Let's compare the formation of the return on equity for two adjacent periods. In the analyzed period, the value of the indicator was 25.3 against 23.7 in the past.

Return on investment increased by 0.8%, which was due to changes in the composition of accounting profit.

Of particular interest for analysis is the dynamics of the profitability of products sold. For every ruble of sold products, the company received 1.6 kopecks in the reporting year. less profit. Although this difference is small in itself, it is important to analyze the factors that influenced the profitability of products. They can be changes: in the implementation structure; prices for products sold; unit cost of production; the share of other income and expenses, as well as non-operating results; in the funding structure; rates and taxation (introduction of new taxes); company accounting policy.

To identify the reasons that influenced the change in the share of profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise, we will use the data f. No. 2 "Profit and Loss Statement" for two adjacent periods (years). To ensure comparability, absolute indicators are recalculated into relative ones (as a percentage of sales proceeds). The order of calculation is shown in table. 4.3.


When conducting such an analysis, special attention should be paid to the change in the share of costs for the production of sold products, or, what is the same, to the change in the share of the result from sales in the composition of revenue, since these indicators characterize the possibility of obtaining a stable income by the enterprise. The dynamics of these indicators should be explained taking into account such factors as the change in the cost of a unit of production, the composition and structure of manufactured products, a detailed analysis of which is beyond the scope of this book. It should also be borne in mind that the dynamics of the ratio of costs and incomes as part of the proceeds from the sale of products depends not only on the efficiency of the use of resources, but also on the principles of accounting applied at the enterprise. So, based on the adopted accounting policy, the enterprise has the opportunity to increase or decrease the amount of profit by choosing one or another method for valuing assets and the procedure for writing them off, establishing the period of use, etc.

The issues of accounting policy that determine the value of the financial result of the enterprise, primarily include:

• choice of the method of accrual of depreciation of fixed assets; choice of material evaluation method;
• determination of the depreciation method for IBEs when they are put into operation;
• establishing the useful life of non-current assets;
• choice of the order of attribution to the cost of goods sold certain types expenses (by directly writing them off to the cost price as expenses are incurred or with preliminary crediting to the reserve of future expenses and payments);
• determination of the composition of costs attributable directly to the cost of a particular type of product;
• determination of the composition of indirect (overhead) costs and the method of their distribution, etc.

Since a change in accounting policy for any of the listed items will affect the ratio of income and expenses, this fundamental point must certainly be taken into account in the analysis of profitability of sales.

As follows from the data in Table. 4.3, the change in the profitability of sales indicator in the reporting year was affected by an increase of 2.5% in the cost of production, which makes it necessary to study the reasons for the change in the main components of the cost of sales.

Comparison of the ratios "result from sales / revenue" and "result from financial and economic activities / revenue" shows that in the reporting period there was a decrease in the share of the latter indicator by 3.7 points, while the share of the result from sales in revenue decreased by 2.5 item. To find out the reasons for such changes, it is necessary to analyze the dynamics of items of interest receivable (payable), income from participation in other organizations, and other operating income (expenses). According to Table. 4.3, the cumulative influence of factors led to a reduction in the share of the result from financial and economic activities by 1.2 points.

Due to a decrease in the share of payments to the budget by 1.3%, as well as other deductions from net profit by 0.8%, the total change in sales profitability amounted to 1.6%.

Table 4.3 is compiled in an enlarged form. Taking into account the specifics of a particular enterprise, it should be detailed in such a way that its data reveal the reasons for the change in indicators.

Analysis of the structure of indicators according to f. No. 2 is of a general nature and can be considered as the initial stage of assessing changes in the indicator of profitability of sales (products). At the next stage of the analysis, it is necessary to identify the impact of changes in the sales structure, as well as the individual profitability of products that are part of the sold products, on the overall profitability of sales.
The analysis is carried out in the following order.

1. Calculate the share of each type of product in the total sales volume.
2. Calculate individual indicators of profitability of certain types of products.
3. Determine the impact of the profitability of individual products on its average level for all products sold. To do this, the value of individual profitability is multiplied by the share of the product in the total volume of sales.

Suppose an enterprise from our example produces products of types A, B, C, D. The initial data for analysis are presented in Table. 4.4.


Indicators gr. 7-9 tables are determined by calculation. So, the influence of the sales structure on the change in the profitability of products (column 7) is calculated as the product of colum. 1 and 6; the impact of changes in the individual profitability of manufactured products is defined as the product of indicators gr. 3 and 5, and the cumulative influence of factors (column 9) - as the sum of the corresponding values ​​for f. 7 and 8.

From Table. 4.4 it can be seen that the overall profitability of sold products is falling at the enterprise in the reporting period. Thus, the profitability of sales decreased by 3.3% (column 8). At the same time, positive changes took place in the structure of sold products, associated with an increase in the share of products with the highest individual profitability (products A and D), partly offsetting the negative impact of falling profitability. The cumulative impact of factors on the overall return on sales was -1.577 (+1.714 - 3.291). In other words, we got the previously calculated change in return on sales by 1.6%.

The considered method of analysis makes it possible to evaluate the impact of the sale of individual products on the overall profitability of sales in the conditions of the existing structure of products sold.

It should be borne in mind that a necessary condition for analyzing the profitability of products sold is the maintenance of separate analytical accounting of costs for manufactured products. Unfortunately, novice accountants often make a serious mistake when determining and taking into account the costs of production and marketing of products in the total amount (without differentiation by type of product). Because of this simplification, the economic services of an enterprise are deprived of important management information regarding the profitability of production and the sale of a particular type of product.

There is a relationship between the indicators of profitability of assets (property), asset turnover and profitability of sales (products), which can be represented by the formula

Return on assets \u003d Asset turnover * Return on sales (products)

Really,

Profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise / Average value of assets = (Proceeds from sales / Average value of assets) * (Profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise / Average value of assets)

In other words, the profit of the enterprise received from each ruble of funds invested in assets depends on the rate of turnover of funds and on the share of net profit in sales proceeds. This ratio can be interpreted as follows. On the one hand, a high return on sales does not yet mean a high return on the total capital used by the enterprise. On the other hand, the insignificance of the profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise in relation to the sales proceeds does not necessarily indicate a low profitability of investments in the assets of the enterprise. The defining moment is the rate of turnover of the company's assets. So, if the proceeds from the sale of products for the period is 100,000 thousand rubles. and formed total assets - also 100,000 thousand rubles, then in order to obtain a 20% return on total assets, the enterprise needs to ensure a return on sales of 20%. If he needed only half of the assets (50,000 thousand rubles) to receive the same revenue, then, receiving only 10% of the profit from the ruble of sales, the enterprise would have the same 20% profit on total assets, i.e., the higher the rate of turnover of assets, the smaller the amount of profit that is necessary to ensure the required return on assets.

In general, the turnover of assets depends on the volume of sales and the average value of assets. But an accountant who analyzes the financial position of an enterprise should approach the assessment of this indicator primarily from the point of view of the rationality of the property structure. As it was found out earlier, the slowdown in turnover can be associated with both objective reasons (inflation, rupture of economic ties) and subjective ones (inept inventory management, unsatisfactory state of settlements with buyers, lack of proper accounting).

Note that of the two considered indicators that determine the level of efficiency in the use of assets, in relation to the profitability of products, the enterprise, as a rule, has more freedom of maneuver in order to increase its impact on the overall profitability of assets. Earlier, we showed that, thanks to the chosen accounting policy, the enterprise has the ability to increase (reduce) the cost of sales and, therefore, reduce (increase) the amount of profit.

The analyzed enterprise to obtain net profit in the amount of 2,020,410 thousand rubles. with the amount of proceeds from the sale of 12,453,260 thousand rubles. involved in the reporting year current assets in the amount of 5,665,720 thousand rubles. (see table 4.2). Therefore, for the reporting year, the return on current assets amounted to:

Return on current assets = (12,453,260 / 5,665,720) * (2,020,410 / 12,453,260) * 100 = 2.198 * 16.2 = 35.61.

Similarly for the previous year: Return on current assets = 2.382 * 17.8 = 42.40

If the company had not changed the ratio of cost and profit (profitability of sales would have remained at the level of the previous year), the profitability of current assets in terms of their current turnover would have been 39.12 (2.198 17.8). Thus, in comparison with the previous year, due to the slowdown in the turnover of working capital, the return on each ruble of funds invested in current assets decreased by 3.28 kopecks. Knowing that the actual return on current assets turned out to be lower than the specified value by 3.51 (35.61 - 39.12) and equal to 35.61%, we can conclude that this was due to a decrease in the reporting year of the return on sales (products ). The results of the analysis are presented in the form of a table. 4.5.


As follows from Table. 4.5, as a result of a slowdown in the reporting year of the turnover of working capital by 0.184 times and a decrease in sales profitability by 1.6%, the efficiency of using current assets decreased by 6.79% compared to the previous year. Recall that the data are of a general nature and are formed based on the results of the analysis of asset turnover (Chapter 3) and profitability of sales. In addition, when assessing the effectiveness of the use of property, one should keep in mind the dependence of the profitability of the enterprise's assets on the structure of the sources of their formation (the ratio of own and borrowed funds).

The considered profitability indicators characterize one approach to assessing the effectiveness of an enterprise: they indicate the profitability of capital investments in a particular enterprise. But another approach is also possible, involving an assessment of the effectiveness of the costs incurred. Within the framework of this approach, indicators are calculated that characterize the ratio of sales proceeds to expenses or profit (before taxation) to expenses.

In order for an enterprise to make a profit, the cost of raw materials and materials consumed, wages, overhead costs (general production, general economic, commercial) must have certain correlations with sales prices. The ratio of revenue to expenses in this sense is no less important for assessing the effectiveness of activities than the indicators of profitability (return on investment), since it characterizes the distribution of each ruble received in order to cover the costs of material, wages, overheads, and also determines the remaining difference - source profits and interest on capital.

The administrative apparatus of the enterprise must own the appropriate methods for calculating the ratios of costs and revenues, in which a satisfactory return on capital employed is possible. The most simple value of the cost of production and sale of products for the relevant period can be obtained from the income statement. However, it is important to know the total amount of costs incurred, therefore, for a more accurate calculation of the indicator, expenses and payments made from net profit should be added to the costs included in the cost price. Thus, the cost price is calculated, including all costs (production, commercial, financial) and representing the amount that must be recovered when selling products (goods) in order for the return on capital employed to be satisfactory. The cost price in this sense determines the price at which you need to sell products in order to cover all costs, pay interest and provide an average return to the shareholder on invested capital.

It is advisable to calculate another cost indicator for enterprises that use funds raised on a loaned basis to finance their activities. The composition of costs in this case will include all production and commercial expenses, but will not include the costs associated with the payment of interest on borrowed capital. Then the difference between the proceeds from the sale of products and this cost indicator will be profit before payment of interest for the use of borrowed funds and taxes. This indicator is widely used in assessing the creditworthiness of an enterprise to calculate the interest coverage ratio:

K interest coverage = Earnings before interest and taxes / Interest paid for the period

Finally, it is extremely important to calculate the ratio of revenue and cost in the amount of variable costs. This ratio, which characterizes the prevailing rate of variable costs, makes it possible to predict the change in financial results depending on changes in production factors and the external environment (for example, prices for raw materials and materials, services).

Information about all the listed types of costs should always be at the disposal of the management of the enterprise.

The two considered methods for evaluating the effectiveness of activities (in terms of the return on capital investments and in terms of the efficiency of resource consumption) complement each other. The effectiveness of asset management can only be assessed through a cumulative analysis of these indicators.

Consider the situation. There are two enterprises A and B, whose activities are characterized by the following data (Table 4.6).


As you can see, the ratio of income and costs incurred is higher for enterprise A (116.2 and 16.2). However, it does not yet follow that Enterprise A manages its assets better, because so far the policy of stockpiling (and, therefore, total assets) has not been taken into account. Thus, the return on assets of enterprise A was 6.6% (43: 650,100), and enterprise B - 7.2% (43: 600,100). The reason for this was the different turnover of assets: for enterprise A, the number of turnovers for the period was 1.88 (1220: 650), while for enterprise B it was 2.08 (1250: 600).

Obviously, due to the increase in the shelf life of stocks at enterprise A, the turnover of total assets slowed down, which in turn reduced the return on investment in this enterprise.

By deliberately simplifying the example, we wanted to show the need to use two groups of performance indicators.

For the analyzed enterprise, the dynamics of profitability indicators is characterized by the following data (Table 4.7).


As you can see, for every ruble of costs incurred, the return (revenue, profit) decreased by 4.6 kopecks. In the analyzed period, the enterprise failed to compensate for the increase in costs due to an additional increase in income from sales of products, as a result of which the ratios of the indicators "revenue - cost - result from sales" changed.

Recall that according to the results of the analysis presented in Table. 4.2, the return on current assets decreased by 6.8%. Thus, the profitability of the costs incurred and the return on the use of capital invested in current assets have changed in the same direction - they have decreased. At the same time, as it was found out earlier, both the change in the profitability of sales (costs) and the slowdown in the turnover of current assets affected the value of the profitability of current assets.

At the end of the analysis financial condition it is useful to compile a final table of the main ratios of economic indicators characterizing the financial position of the enterprise for two adjacent years (Table 4.8).

Table data. 4.8 allow you to draw up an analytical conclusion on the financial condition of the enterprise. The property structure is characterized by the largest share of current assets (49% at the beginning of the year and 58.2% at the end).

Own capital prevails in the structure of the enterprise's property sources, while by the end of the year its share decreased from 66.7% to 59.8%. Accordingly, the share of borrowed funds increased by 6.9%.

The liquidity of the enterprise is characterized by the fact that although its current assets cover short-term liabilities, the value of the coverage ratio decreases by the end of the year (from 2.25 to 1.84). This is due to the faster growth of short-term liabilities in comparison with the increase in working capital.

Serious concerns are caused by the "quality" of the enterprise's property - in the composition of current assets, the share of hard-to-sell assets increased from 16.2 to 18.0%. The fact that in the composition of the working capital of the enterprise more than / 6 of their part are hard-to-sell assets, indicates a decrease in its liquidity. The above is confirmed by the dynamics of overdue short-term debt, the share of which in the composition of short-term liabilities increased from 19.9% ​​to 34.4%. All this indicates a violation of the financial stability of the enterprise.

In comparison with the previous year, the asset turnover at the enterprise has significantly slowed down: the period of turnover of current assets has increased by 12.7 days, by 5.5 days - by industrial stocks, by 5.4 days - by 5.4 days - the period of settlements with buyers. The diversion of funds into settlements and the accumulation of reserves led to the need to use additional sources of financing, which were expensive bank loans.

It is noteworthy that the slowdown in the turnover of funds at the enterprise was accompanied by a reduction in the period for which it was granted a loan. If in the past period the operating cycle was financed at the expense of the supplier's capital within 65 days, then in the reporting period - already within 61.5 days. With a slowdown in the turnover of funds, this trend can put the company in a position of insolvent.

The slowdown in the turnover of assets at the enterprise had a negative impact on the efficiency of the use of property: compared to the previous year, the return on each ruble of funds invested in total assets decreased by 1.9%; the profitability of current assets decreased by 6.8%. All this allows us to characterize the financial condition of the enterprise as unstable. To stabilize it, it will be necessary to carry out such urgent measures as inventorying the company's assets and getting rid of the "ballast" of illiquid assets and stale stocks, speeding up shipment finished products and settlements with buyers and customers, an agreement with a bank or creditors to defer part of payments.

For the convenience of analyzing the effectiveness of the use of property, Appendix 5 provides a summary table of indicators characterizing the profitability of the enterprise.

When analyzing the profitability of enterprises, the most attention is required:

• the dynamics of the return on equity and the factors that determine it;
• reasons for the change in the profitability of capital investment; the ratio of profitability of capital investment and the price of borrowed funds; the value and dynamics of the indicator of profitability of sales; the value of profitability indicators characterizing the efficiency production costs, and their correlation with indicators of return on capital.

Introduction

The enterprise is the main link and one of the subjects of the economy. Today, there are many enterprises that specialize in a wide variety of activities and production and have their own structure. However, all of them, in the end, have a common goal - to generate income, namely profit. The priority role of profit arose with the advent of such a phenomenon as a market economy. Tough market conditions force enterprises to develop, compete and hold their positions.

The level of profitability of the enterprise shows the efficiency of the entire structure and all levels of production. An enterprise is a complex mechanism where everyone performs their function. This mechanism continuously interacts with the external environment, but at the same time it has internal features. Effective managers are able to analyze the influence of all factors and offer the most rational ways to improve the efficiency of the enterprise.

Question: What are the ways to increase profitability? - excites any manager, owner, leader. As long as the enterprise brings income to its owner, it continues to function, which means that such a topic as ways to increase profitability will be relevant throughout the market economy.

At the same time, the following are not recognized as income: amounts of value added taxes, excises; receipts under commission agreements; advances and deposits, advance payment.

In this course work, the primary goal is to characterize the methods of increasing the profitability of the enterprise. To achieve the goal and a deeper understanding of the problem, it is necessary to complete the following tasks:

)present and consider profitability indicators: profit and profitability of the enterprise, their types and significance;

)to study the external and internal factors affecting the income of the enterprise;

)characterize the existing ways to increase the profitability of the enterprise.

1. The concept of enterprise profitability

.1 Profit as an absolute indicator of profitability

income profit profitability

Commercial activity is not complete without such a category as profit. The very word "commerce" is already closely connected in the minds of people with this concept. The classic and simple definition of profit is as follows: profit - is defined as the difference between total revenue and total costs.

Before organizing any commercial activity, an entrepreneur tries to calculate how profitable, which means that this project will be profitable, since making a profit is the main goal of any commercial organization. However, from the point of view of the Anglo-American financial school, which has received worldwide recognition, the priority in the activities of the enterprise is specifically the maximization of the income of the owners. This is due to the need for optimal distribution and use of the company's financial resources to ensure maximum market value. Such a rational approach will ensure the income of the owners.

The enterprise has different directions of profit distribution (Fig. 1.1) In turn, the income of the organization is recognized as an increase in economic benefits as a result of the receipt of assets (cash, other property) and (or) the repayment of obligations, leading to an increase in the capital of this organization, with the exception of contributions from participants ( property owners). Only part of the profit remaining after paying taxes and payments to the budget is directed to the development of the enterprise and is called net profit.

An enterprise may have revenue, but this does not mean that it also receives profit. To identify the financial result, it is necessary to compare revenue with the costs of production and sale, that is, with the cost of production. The company makes a profit if the revenue exceeds the cost. In a situation where revenue is equal to cost, it is only possible to recover the costs of production and sale of products. The costs for the purchase and delivery of raw materials are covered, wages are distributed to workers, but there is no profit in this situation, but the enterprise has no debts. If the costs exceed the revenue, then the company receives a loss, a negative financial result, which puts it in a difficult financial situation, debt obligations, and bankruptcy is not excluded. Naturally, the organization seeks to improve its position as quickly as possible and rehabilitate itself in the market as much as possible.

So we see that profit is a kind of benchmark for the enterprise and has a number of functions. In addition to the fact that profit characterizes the economic effect, it also performs a stimulating function, since it is the basis for expanding production, scientific, technical and social development, and material incentives for workers. Also, profit is one of the main sources of formation of budgets of different levels.

Profit is an absolute indicator of profitability, since absolute indicators allow us to analyze the dynamics of various profit indicators over several years. At the same time, it should be noted that in order to obtain the most objective results, indicators should be calculated taking into account inflationary processes. Profit is formed from several components:

§ profit from the sale of products (sales) P R is the difference between sales revenue R and the costs of production and marketing of products (full cost) etc , the amount of value added tax (VAT), excises AKC:

P R = B R - Z etc - VAT - AKC.

§ profit from other sales (P etc ) is the profit received from the sale of fixed assets and other property, waste, intangible assets. Defined as the difference between sales revenue (B etc ) and the costs of this implementation (Z R ):

P etc = B etc - Z R .

§ profit from non-operating operations is the difference between income from non-operating operations (D ext ) and expenses on non-sales operations (Р ext ):

P ext = D ext - R ext

It is worth noting that a distinction is made between accounting and economic profit. Economic profit is the difference between total revenue and external and internal costs. Profit, determined on the basis of accounting data, is the difference between income from various activities and external costs.

In a market economy, it is necessary to properly manage profits, use it not for consumption, but for investment, innovation and maintaining competitiveness. The amount of profit depends on the production, supply, marketing and financial activities of the enterprise. Such an indicator as profit says a lot about the efficiency of the enterprise, but there is also the concept of profitability. It is associated with the relative expression of these indicators and plays a role in the analysis of the enterprise. Profit and profitability of the enterprise are directly interconnected.

1.2 Profitability as a relative indicator of profitability

To assess the effectiveness and economic feasibility of the enterprise's activities, it is not enough just to determine the absolute indicators. A more objective picture can be obtained with the help of profitability indicators. Profitability indicators are relative characteristics of the financial results and performance of the enterprise. Profitability comprehensively reflects the use of material, labor and monetary resources.

Profitability indicators are used for a comparative assessment of the performance of individual enterprises and industries that produce different volumes and types of products. The most commonly used indicators are the profitability of products and the profitability of production.

Product profitability (P P ) is the ratio of the total amount of profit to the costs of production and sales of products (the relative amount of profit attributable to 1 ruble of current costs):

R P \u003d (C-S / C) * 100,

where C is the price of a unit of production; C is the unit cost of production.

The profitability of production (total) shows the ratio of the total amount of profit to the average annual cost of fixed and normalized working capital (the amount of profit per 1 ruble of production assets):

R O =P/(OS Wed + O b WITH Wed )*100,

where P is the amount of profit; OS Wed - average annual cost of fixed assets; O b WITH Wed - average annual balances of working capital.

Profitability characterizes the efficiency of the production and economic activities of the enterprise, reflecting at what amount of capital used this mass of profit was obtained. With the help of product profitability, the efficiency of production of certain types of products is evaluated, and the profitability of production, or the overall balance sheet profitability, serves as an indicator of the efficiency of the enterprise (industry) as a whole.

There is a concept of profitability of turnover. This indicator reflects the relationship between profit from product sales and sales revenue.

The profitability of personnel shows the ratio of (net) profit to the average headcount.

Profitability of sales - profitability ratio, which shows the share of profit in each earned ruble. Return on sales is an indicator pricing policy company and its ability to control costs. It is often used to evaluate the operating efficiency of companies.

In addition to the fact that the profitability indicator is one of the main criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of the enterprise, it is also a productive, qualitative indicator of the enterprise. The growth of profitability helps to increase the financial stability of the enterprise, ensures the victory of the enterprise in the competition and contributes to the survival of the enterprise in a market economy. For entrepreneurs, the profitability indicator characterizes the attractiveness of a business in this area.

The most general assessment of the effectiveness of profit formation is the return on assets (economic profitability). Enterprise assets - a set of property rights belonging to the enterprise, in the form of fixed assets, stocks, financial contributions, monetary claims to other physical and legal entities. In other words: assets are investments and claims. The term "assets" is also used to refer to any property, property of the organization. Return on assets characterizes the overall level of profit received from the use of all assets of the enterprise:

R a =P b /A*100,

where Pb - accounting profit; A is the average cost of all assets used.

Profitability indicators are used in assessing the financial condition of the enterprise. However, profitability can be calculated for the country as a whole, for example, you can get acquainted with the average profitability of goods sold, products, works, services and the profitability of assets of organizations by type economic activity, referring to the percentage of Table 1. (Appendix 1).

Profit and profitability are the most important indicators for economic entities, so it is not surprising to strive to improve these indicators. These indicators depend on both the internal and external environment, and entrepreneurs are forced to take this into account.

2. Factors affecting the profitability of the enterprise

.1 Internal factors

In the literature, the word "factor" is interpreted as the driving force of an ongoing process or one of its necessary conditions. Internal factors are those that depend on the enterprise itself, i.e. the enterprise can influence them, because she creates them herself.

Internal factors are very diverse, therefore, for a better understanding, analysis, accounting and identification of production reserves, they are combined into the following groups:

1)the level and competence of the management;

2)technical level of production;

)level of organization of production;

)incentive system;

)development of the marketing system;

All internal factors can be divided into objective and subjective. Objective ones arise regardless of the subject of management (for example, the deterioration of mining and geological conditions at a mining enterprise or natural disasters). The subjective ones, which make up the absolute majority, are completely dependent on the subject of management and should always be in the field of vision and analysis.

Let's take a closer look at some internal factors.

The competence of the management is the first point in the internal factors deservedly. No business is complete without leadership. Often an enterprise does not succeed due to the lack of experienced, enterprising management, and effective management always gives its positive results. The head of the enterprise must have full knowledge of the information and be able to manage it. So other internal factors depend on the “top” management, for example, how actively the innovation policy will be pursued, which is able to open great opportunities for the development of the enterprise, increasing the technical level and competitiveness. All modern economic theories indicate that innovations are a source of development only if they are actively and effectively used, as well as creating a favorable environment for their initiation.

The leader can significantly influence the nature of interpersonal relations in the work team, the attitude towards joint activities, satisfaction with the conditions and results of work, i.e. socio-psychological climate, on which the effectiveness of the organization as a whole largely depends.

The level of organization, the system of incentives and marketing (systematized activities related to the development, creation and sale of products to meet personal and social needs) all this also applies to the internal environment of the enterprise. The internal environment of the enterprise is people, property and information. The result of the interaction of these elements is the finished product.

It is difficult to argue with the fact that the basis of the enterprise is people, their efforts and knowledge. In this regard, the stimulation of employees has its immediate impact. A significant role is played by bonuses for rationalization and inventive activity, which leads to an increase in the profits of firms. Prospective specialists are stimulated not only through monetary rewards, but also through benefits and free services from social consumption funds. Large organizations pay their employees bonuses for the holidays, on average, in the amount of 25-50% of the monthly wages, 13th salary; make payments for the next vacation; provide for personal use vehicles with payment for gasoline; fully or partially compensate for the cost of housing, etc.

On the other hand, for example, an employee who made a profitable deal for the company, who was not encouraged and appreciated, can simply leave the company, even go to competitors and take information with them. This threatens with losses for the company, accustomed to save on staff. Your reputation may also suffer from this. The firm will not be attractive to highly qualified specialists. The image of the company is something that should not be forgotten.

It can be concluded that the factors of the internal environment have a direct impact on the performance of the enterprise and on each other. For example, a change in technology may require staff training, changes in wages, etc.

Factors of the internal environment determine the production potential of the enterprise, but there are also external factors that indirectly affect the activities of enterprises and they must also be taken into account and, if possible, used in favor of the enterprise or minimized if their influence is not favorable.

.2 External factors

External factors are those conditions that the organization cannot influence, but external factors have a significant impact on its activities. You can call this phenomenon the external environment of the enterprise, which implies a variety of forces and subjects that have a direct or indirect impact on the functioning of the organization and operate outside of it. To survive, a firm must adapt to its external environment.

There are environmental factors of direct and indirect impact. A direct impact has such a factor as the population living in the vicinity of the enterprise, as it is the main consumer and supplier of labor. An important role is played by the supplier of production components, such as: material resources, technology and equipment and financial resources.

To select suppliers material resources an analysis of prices, terms of delivery and their capabilities is necessary. Also, due to an unscrupulous supplier, product quality may suffer, and this will affect consumer loyalty to the manufacturer.

Technique and technology are important in themselves, because the efficiency of production depends on the response of the enterprise to new technologies and their implementation. The providers of financial resources are banks, investment companies, funds, etc.

Consumers are the next direct impact factor. Consumers form the market. The company must know its customers and their needs, find ways to meet them. Consumers are considered in terms of pricing, the possibility of prepayment, the use of a system of discounts and other promotions.

Competitors also have direct impact. Competitors determine the operating conditions and the amount of profit diverted to create optimal conditions for work. In many cases, it is competitors, not consumers, who influence decisions: what to sell and at what price. Competitive struggle is conducted not only for consumers, but also material, financial and labor resources.

The profitability of the enterprise depends on how well the system of interaction with contact audiences is developed. It is precisely the timely analysis that can warn of impending changes in consumer preferences.

The state is a fairly powerful center for regulating economic activity. The state operates normatively legal acts through the establishment of taxes, subsidies, tax rates, refinancing rates, subsidies and other instruments.

Much can be said about the influence of the state on the economy. For example, today there is an opinion that the Russian government should partially or temporarily exempt start-up, promising projects from income tax. It is believed that this measure will have a favorable impact on the development of small and medium-sized businesses. 45% of entrepreneurs consider it necessary to remove administrative barriers, and 47% consider it important to reduce the rate on commercial loans.

State establishes customs duties, for example, from September 1, 2015, Russia reduced customs duties on almost 4 thousand items of goods. Import duties were mainly reduced on sanctioned goods. Because of this, in some cases, domestic producers may suffer. Thus, the reduction in rates affected several industries, including, light industry and the children's goods industry.

Here we also see the influence of the political situation on the ongoing policy in the field of the economy, and so we smoothly move on to factors of indirect influence.

There are environmental factors of indirect influence. These are political, economic, socio-cultural, demographic, international factors.

Political factors reflect the stability of transformations in the country, the number of political factions, and the criminal situation. The political situation and the investment climate determine the amount of investment in the country's economy.

It is known that in Russia export by 37.6% determines the dynamics industrial production. So in 2014, this figure was not very high (101.1%). This is due to the reduction in exports due to the imposed sanctions, which externally affected the activities of many industries.

The influence of the external environment can be considered on the example of the activities of a gold mining enterprise. To do this, let's refer to Table 2 (Appendix 2) "Opportunities and Threats of the External Environment Affecting the Activity of Gold Mining Enterprises".

The table shows the impact on the activities of the enterprise of the political situation, state legal regulation, the level of prices for products, the level of investment attractiveness of the industry. Each enterprise has its own specifics when interacting with both the external and internal environment. However, every enterprise strives to increase profitability, and in the next chapter we will talk about ways to achieve an increase in enterprise income.

3. Ways to increase the profitability of the enterprise

An organization's income is recognized as an increase in economic benefits as a result of the receipt of assets and the repayment of liabilities, leading to an increase in the capital of this organization, with the exception of contributions from participants.

The costs of production and sales of products determine the level and structure of its cost. Quantitatively, it occupies a significant share in the price structure, so the cost reduction has a very noticeable effect on profit growth, all other things being equal.

An enterprise can reduce the cost of production if it starts using cheaper raw materials, but in some cases this may affect the quality of the product, and hence the demand for it. Choosing a cheap material, the manufacturer risks the location of the consumer, so you should pay attention to such a way to reduce the cost of production as the modernization of the production process.

The decisive condition for cost reduction is continuous technical progress. Implementation new technology, complex mechanization and automation production processes, improvement of technology, the introduction of progressive types of materials can significantly reduce the cost of production. Businesses can find efficient ways to use production waste.

Rationalization of the use of available resources, including the labor force: raising the level of skills of workers, ensuring outstripping growth in labor productivity compared to the average salary will also give results. Compliance of the qualifications of employees with the level of technologies used is extremely important, otherwise expensive equipment may not be justified, and its utilization rate will be low.

It is known that in the 1990s innovative activities were engaged in from 52 to 76% of enterprises. Including, from 31 to 46% of enterprises used commodity and product innovations, from 15 to 33% - technological innovation. .At the beginning of the XXI century. these parameters have changed - a greater number of enterprises have begun to apply technological innovations (up to 51%), much attention has been paid to new approaches to the management system and the formation of personnel quality.

Increasing the production of products and raising their prices by improving the quality, improving the means of production. This may also be related to NTP.

Indeed, an increase in sales volume in physical terms, other things being equal, leads to an increase in profits, but a corresponding increase in production volumes requires additional investments and, therefore, the company's own funds or an available long-term loan.

Reducing the cost of production and sales of products can be achieved using a favorable location, for example, the proximity of the enterprise to the fields allows you to reduce transportation costs. Increasingly, manufacturers prefer to have their own point of sale - their own store.

Diversification of production, that is, expansion of the range, development of new markets is an important stage in the development of the enterprise and is supported by the desire for economic benefits. Here we can also note the importance of focusing on the consumer, because the range is adjusted to his needs. The principle of customer orientation is manifested in understanding the needs and expectations of consumers, measuring customer satisfaction and results of actions. Organizations depend on their customers and therefore must meet customer requirements and strive to exceed customer expectations. Characteristics of client segments, drawing up a portrait of the consumer is a stage in the development of an enterprise strategy.

In order to obtain greater profits and increase profitability, an enterprise can also rent out part of its property, including premises, structures, equipment, etc., for rent for a more or less long period. The lease of property may result in the form of a lease-to-own. As a result, the company receives income that increases non-operating income and gross profit. But this method is not connected with the development of the enterprise.

Conclusion

So, there are several ways to increase the profitability of the enterprise. They are associated with a reduction in the cost of production and production costs, with the expansion of output and pricing policy, working with consumers, and of course with technical progress. The management of the enterprise chooses the most effective methods based on the specifics of the organization. Management decisions are influenced by many factors, which are divided into external and internal. If it is possible to influence the internal environment, then the influence from the outside must either be minimized or used to the advantage of the organization.

When choosing a strategy to increase profitability, first of all, such indicators as profit and profitability are analyzed. Exists various forms calculation of these values. Profitability shows how profitable the activity of the enterprise, respectively, the higher the profitability ratios, the more efficient the activity. Profit - is defined as the difference between total revenue and total costs. The successful development of the organization in the long term depends on the timeliness of the analysis, the reliability of the results obtained and the promptness of the development of measures aimed at increasing profit and profitability indicators.

Currently, to increase profitability and profitability, such methods as increasing sales and reducing costs are most often used, and more and more companies are paying increased attention to marketing (working with the consumer), which allows them not only to choose products that are of interest to consumers, but also to promote them to the market.

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