The main subjects of commercial activity. Subjects and objects of commercial activity - the law. Improving the organization of commercial activities of a retail enterprise. (On the example of "Tri Kita" LLC)

Not all participants in civil law relations may be subjects of commercial law. Only those entities (participants) who have a special permit to conduct professional trade or in whose charters trade is one of the statutory tasks, have the right to participate in trading activities. These entities include:

1) legal entities;

2) citizens-entrepreneurs;

3) special subjects.

Individuals are not subjects of commercial law. The subjects of commercial activity are only those individuals and legal entities who carry out professional activities to bring goods from the manufacturer to the consumers.

In the Russian Federation, citizens can engage in professional commercial activities if they are registered as entrepreneurs in the manner prescribed by law. Such registration as a citizen-entrepreneur gives the citizen the right to engage in commercial activities if such a right is provided for in the registration certificate issued to him. In addition to rights, registration as a citizen-entrepreneur imposes on him a number of obligations, as well as special civil liability. A citizen-entrepreneur can participate in an arbitration court both as a plaintiff and as a defendant.

Legal entities can be subjects of commercial law. A legal entity is an organization that owns, economically or operatively manages separate property and is responsible for its obligations with this property, can, on its own behalf, acquire and exercise property and personal non-property rights, perform duties, be a plaintiff and defendant in court (cl. 1 article 48 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

Special subjects of the commodity market do not make transactions, but create opportunities for other persons to make transactions. Such organizations include, for example:

1) commodity exchanges;

2) wholesale fairs;

3) intermediary organizations (trading houses, dealer firms, traders, distributors, brokers, stockists, agency firms).

All special subjects of trading activities can be grouped into two groups:

1) special subjects of the commodity market that are not directly involved in the execution of transactions, but create opportunities and conditions for operations for other persons. These organizations include:

a) commodity exchanges - organizations that form the wholesale market in the form of open and public trades held in a specific place and according to specific rules;

b) currency exchanges;

c) stock exchanges;

d) exhibitions and fairs;

e) chambers of commerce and industry;

2) business organizations or individual entrepreneurs who are directly involved in the conclusion of transactions. They are classified as follows:

a) independent intermediaries - act on their own behalf and at their own expense:

- dealers - special trade and intermediary organizations specializing in the sale of a certain product, performing certain operations with a certain type of goods;

- trading houses - diversified organizations that are engaged in trade and production activities for the processing, packaging and packaging of goods sold, are built as a single legal entity or an association of legal entities engaged in trade, warehouse and production activities;

- traders are specialized intermediaries who make transactions on behalf of clients, but on their own behalf and at their own expense. Legal entities and individual entrepreneurs can be traders. They specialize in short-term transactions;

- Stockists - a special type of specialized intermediaries who carry out export-import operations on the basis of a commission agreement, according to which they carry out the exclusive sale of goods from a certain supplier. They first receive the exporter's goods to the warehouse, and then sell them under a commission agreement to medium and small buyers;

b) intermediary organizations that do not acquire ownership of the goods, but provide, as the main type of activity, services for bringing the goods from the manufacturer to the consumer. This type of intermediary includes distributors. These are organizations that sell imported goods on the territory of their country. They are characterized by the long-term nature of relations, the creation of their own sales network, the implementation of activities not directly related to trade operations (demand research, product advertising, etc.).

Distributors are classified into:

- regular - have their own warehouses, where goods are accumulated and stored, conclude contracts for the supply in future periods, provide services for the selection of an assortment of groups of goods;

- irregular - they rent warehouses, participate mainly in transit supplies;

c) organizations that do not carry out transactions with goods, but provide a variety of services, helping to promote the goods. They enter into deals aimed at promoting a product:

- brokers - organizations, individuals who conclude contracts on the exchange on behalf of and at the expense of the client, act on the exchange as offices or independent brokers;

- agency firms - are looking for buyers for the seller (trade agencies) or study the supply and demand in the market for a certain product with the prospect of selling it (marketing agencies). The list of commodity market participants is not exhaustive. In connection with the constant development of trade relations, trade legislation, it is possible to improve existing ones and the emergence of new forms of participants in the trade market.

Classification of types of trade:

1. to the venue A) Internal - within 1 state B) External: -export, -import, -transit, -to the USSR re-export

2. By the degree of approximation of the goods to the consumer A) Wholesale B) Retail.

3. by means of transportation: a) land b) sea c) air

Trade turnover is a system of relations between participants in civil turnover in the field of trade, in this sense, the subjects of trade turnover are functional elements of this system. Trading companies or individual traders are considered as the main subject of trade. Taking this into account, in many countries where trade law exists as an independent branch and trade activity is codified, the concept of "merchant" is known in the literature on commercial law when defining the subjects of commercial relations.

In foreign legislation, a clear distinction is made in the regulation of the activities of merchants and non-merchants, respectively. These distinctions primarily relate to such countries of the continental system of law as France, Germany, Spain and Belgium, as well as to a number of Latin American and other states of the Romano-Germanic system of law. The legislation of states with a unified system of private law, in particular the United States and England, as well as countries of the English system of law, such as Italy, the Netherlands, Switzerland and some others, as a rule, does not know the formal legal concept of a merchant and a trade transaction. According to B.I. Puginsky, any person who trades in goods in the form of entrepreneurship can be called a merchant. In the broadest sense of the word, any entrepreneur is a merchant. It is this understanding of commercial activity and a merchant that is laid down in the commercial codes of a number of states. So, Art. L.121-1 of the French Commercial Code defines: "Merchants are persons who carry out commercial acts in the course of their normal professional activities." A detailed list of the types of entrepreneurial activity that merchants are engaged in is contained in the first section "Businessmen" of the first book "The Commercial Estate" of the German Commercial Code.

In the United States, the Uniform Commercial Code (ETC) in Art. 2-104 defines a merchant as a person who transacts with goods of a certain kind or can be considered as having special knowledge and experience in relation to the subject of the transaction due to the nature of their occupation, the nature of their behavior or the use of an intermediary. As a general rule, due to the lack of the necessary knowledge and skills regarding the subject of the transaction in relations with a merchant, a non-merchant as a weak party to the contract by virtue of the general legal requirements of equality and fairness is provided with increased protection from the state.

The systematization of the types of subjects of commercial law can be continued by proposing their classification according to the subjects of trade: 1) universal subjects of commercial law that can carry out any commercial activity without restrictions; 2) oriented subjects of commercial law that deal directly with a certain type of product or carry out a narrowly focused type of activity (for example, enterprises that procure agricultural products, gas storages, transport organizations, insurers, etc.); 3) specialized subjects of commercial law, the implementation of which requires a special permit (for example, licensing). Such entities include persons who trade in medicinal and narcotic drugs, weapons, pesticides, and others. Specialized subjects of commercial law can also include state and municipal entities acting in commercial turnover with control and supervisory functions.

Subjects of commercial law can also be systematized according to the organizational and legal form in which they carry out their activities: 1) individual entrepreneurs; 2) peasant farms; 3) business partnerships; 4) business companies; 5) consumer cooperatives; 6) constituent entities of the Russian Federation; 7) territorial and municipal formations; 8) associations of subjects of commercial activity of various organizational and legal forms: simple partnerships; artels, consortia, syndicates, guilds, pools; associations and unions, holdings; trading houses.

The most important is the classification of commercial entities in accordance with the system of commercial contracts.

In the legal literature, great importance is attached to the differentiation of civil contracts into types, types and varieties. As a general rule, the type of contract is a chapter in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, for example, Ch. 30 - "Purchase and Sale". The type of contract is the relevant paragraph in the chapter, for example § 3 - "Delivery of goods". In the legislation of foreign countries, trade agreements are classified according to two main features: 1) according to the content of the obligation providing for the onerous alienation of goods (France, Spain); 2) on the basis of his conclusion by a merchant (Germany, Japan). The division of commercial contracts into corresponding types in the Russian Federation is based on other criteria based on the legal and economic classification of civil contracts established by the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. As mentioned above, the main qualifying feature of any commercial transactions is their direct connection with the material condition of contracts on the subject - goods. The object of a commercial contract, which is the activity of the obligated parties to the contract, which is expected at the conclusion of the contract, may have a different content. However, not all types of contracts named in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation can be classified as commercial contracts. Contracts that do not mediate the movement of goods on wholesale markets cannot be classified as commercial contracts.

On the other hand, the number of transactions (agreements) not mentioned in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, but directly related to the trade turnover, is increasing in commercial turnover. This trend is called "commercialization of trade". Among these types of contracts are called a wholesale purchase and sale contract, contracts for the production of advertising products, for the provision of marketing services, commercial mediation and commissions, and others.

1. The basis of commercial turnover is the resale of goods for speculative purposes (ie with the aim of making a profit). This is achieved by transferring goods from one wholesaler to another, all the way to the wholesale consumer, who sells the goods to the final consumer in the retail market. The transfer of goods into ownership is carried out on the basis of alienation agreements, the central of which is the sale and purchase agreement as a genus and some of its types. Several factors affect the possibility of using certain types of sales and purchase agreements in commercial turnover:

1) features of the subject composition of the contract, excluding it from a number of commercial contracts. For example, in a retail sales contract, the buyer is a consumer citizen, not a professional entrepreneur, which does not allow this type of contract to be classified as a commercial contract. This does not mean that commercial law should not take into account the interests of end consumers. Consumer rights must be respected not only at the stage of selling finished goods, but also at the stage of production and wholesale of goods;

2) the need to individualize some objects of civil rights makes it impossible for them to participate in the wholesale turnover. On this basis, for example, an annuity agreement, also related to alienation agreements, cannot be recognized as a commercial agreement;

3) in addition to individualization, in some cases it is necessary to carry out registration actions in relation to the material condition on the subject of the contract on the grounds of Art. Art. 130 and 131 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, which does not allow the wholesale of certain types of objects of civil rights. For this reason, contracts of purchase and sale of real estate and purchase and sale of an enterprise cannot be classified as commercial contracts;

4) the specifics of the legal regime for organizing the sale of certain types of goods, in particular, the application to contracts of sale of the rules of monopoly legislation, state regulation of prices, the establishment of a number of regulations and rules in the implementation of transactions of sale and such contracts to the number of commercial contracts (for example, an energy supply contract).

Based on this, commercial alienation contracts can be considered: a supply agreement, a contracting agreement, an exchange agreement. This group also includes some contractual structures not named in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, for example, a distribution agreement and dealer agreements.

The transfer of property for temporary use, aimed at making a profit and carried out by professional entrepreneurs, meets most of the features of commercial contracts, except for one - the purpose of the contract. The main purpose of any commercial contract is ultimately the resale of goods, i.e. his alienation. The transfer of property for temporary use is not intended to alienate the property and involves its return to the owner. Therefore, lease, trust, loan agreements cannot be classified as commercial agreements.

2. In civil circulation, there is a special type of provision of services, which is associated with the implementation of one of the parties to the contract of representative or intermediary functions.

A number of civil contractual structures, the object of which is the performance of work, as a legal result, involves the emergence or transformation of material goods, which are a necessary element for the promotion of goods on wholesale markets. Such works include technological work (for example, on setting up and adjusting goods), marketing research, suggesting as a result a certain product for the study of commodity markets, rigging, work on the production of promotional products. However, not all types of work stipulated by the Civil Code of the Russian Federation can be regarded as commercial contracts. For example, contracts for household and construction contracts are not directly related to the function of promoting goods on the markets, so they should not be classified as commercial contracts. The same applies to the contract for state and municipal needs, as well as the implementation of research, development and development of new technologies.

4. Separately, it is necessary to classify such an important category of commercial transactions as exchange transactions. Depending on the specifics of the delivery of goods during exchange trading, transactions may be concluded in relation to real goods, non-standard contracts for the supply of goods, real goods with delayed delivery (forward transactions), standard contracts for the supply of exchange commodities (futures transactions), transactions involving an assignment rights to a future transfer of rights and obligations in relation to an exchange commodity or a contract for the supply of an exchange commodity (option transactions).

5. A special type of commercial contracts are contracts, the legal purpose of which is the organization of trade. These transactions include contracts organizing the agreed sale and supply of goods, contracts of executive authorities with commercial organizations, contracts for interregional supplies of goods, contracts between organizers of trading (exchanges or trading systems) with potential or real sellers of goods.

Therefore, the most common is the functional classification of subjects of commercial law according to the object of commercial activity (object of commercial legal relationship). On this basis, four groups of subjects of commercial activity can be distinguished.

1. Sellers and buyers of goods (main subjects of trade). The list of sellers, in addition to wholesalers, also includes manufacturers who sell manufactured goods and are obliged to comply with general requirements for trading activities (procedure for accounting and registration of goods). In addition to wholesale buyers, the circle of buyers also includes entities purchasing goods for production and other purposes. Such buyers are "passive" participants in the trade.

2. Resellers: commission agents; agents; attorneys; exchange intermediaries; brokerage intermediaries; traveling salesmen.

3. Persons serving trade (service entities), among which are: warehouses; transport forwarders; insurers; carriers, etc.

4. Organizers of the commodity market (coordinating entities), represented by commodity exchanges, wholesale and retail markets, chambers of commerce and industry, executive and municipal bodies performing functions of influencing trade, etc.

State registration of subjects of commercial activity

Paragraph 3, clause 1 of Art. 2 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation provides for the need for state registration of any persons carrying out. This is due to the need for the state to exercise control and supervisory functions over trade entities in order to protect participants in commercial relations, producers and consumers of goods from possible violations of their rights and ensure their timely and effective protection. Legal regulation of state registration of subjects of commercial law is carried out on the basis of Federal Law No. 129-FZ of August 8, 2001 "On State Registration of Legal Entities and Individual Entrepreneurs". State registration of subjects of trading activity is a necessary tool that regulates their legitimate activities in trade. Such registration should be of a notification and not mandatory nature.

State registration of legal entities and individual entrepreneurs - acts of the authorized federal executive body, carried out by entering into state registers information on the creation, reorganization and liquidation of legal entities, the acquisition by individuals of the status of an individual entrepreneur, the termination of activities by individuals as individual entrepreneurs, other information on legal entities and individual entrepreneurs in accordance with the Federal Law "On State Registration of Legal Entities and Individual Entrepreneurs".

Registration of subjects of trade allows you to determine: 1) the groups and number of participants in the trade turnover; 2) interaction of subjects of commercial law; 3) mutual control in the process of carrying out entrepreneurial activity; 4) information about the specifics of the activity and the volume of turnover.

State registration of legal entities and state registration of individuals as individual entrepreneurs is carried out by the federal executive body authorized by the Government of the Russian Federation. According to clause 1 of the Regulation "On the Federal Tax Service", the service is an authorized federal executive body that carries out state registration of legal entities, individuals as individual entrepreneurs and peasant (farmer) households, and in accordance with clause 5.5.6 of the Regulation it leads to in accordance with the established procedure, the Unified State Register of Legal Entities and the Unified State Register of Individual Entrepreneurs. The maximum single period of state registration for legal entities and individuals as individual entrepreneurs cannot exceed more than five working days from the date of submission of documents to the registering authority.

All the necessary information will be transferred to these departments by the Inspectorate of the Ministry of Taxes and Duties, based on information from the registers of legal entities and private entrepreneurs. The very same subjects of commercial activity simply need to have a certificate of registration and tax registration in order to open bank accounts.

Non-profit organizations as subjects of commercial law

Depending on the purpose of the activity, subjects of commercial law can be subdivided into: commercial organizations, the purpose of which is to systematically derive profit from the sale of goods or the provision of services related to the sale and purchase, and non-profit organizations, the purpose of which is not to systematically extract profit from these actions, which do not distribute this profit between their participants (Article 50 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

The legal category "non-profit organization" is quite young and progressive for Russian civil law. For the first time, the term "non-commercial" was consolidated in the Fundamentals of Civil Legislation of the USSR and the republics of May 31, 1991.

The further formation of a sub-institute of non-profit organizations and the creation of mechanisms for its legal regulation are enshrined in Art. 50 of the first part of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. V.V. Zalessky pointed out that “the division into commercial and non-commercial organizations makes it possible to ensure a clear direction of public, charitable and other similar activities through the special legal capacity of non-commercial organizations.

Commercial organizations are formed mainly in the form of business partnerships and companies. Article 50 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation establishes an exhaustive list of types (organizational and legal forms) of commercial organizations. The types (organizational and legal forms) of non-commercial organizations are defined in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, Federal Law of January 12, 1996 N 7-FZ "On Non-Commercial Organizations" and other federal laws.

B.I. Puginsky notes that “the opportunity for commercial and non-commercial organizations to participate in trade, ie, their commercial legal capacity, is not the same. Commercial organizations, as well as individual entrepreneurs, can fully participate in trade. Non-commercial organizations participate in commodity circulation to a limited extent. Such organizations can acquire the necessary material resources, have the right to sell the products they produce. However, they have the right to sell goods only in accordance with the statutory goals of activity, and not generally engage in trade. They are not entitled to conclude supply contracts as suppliers and can only conclude contracts when selling goods. purchase and sale.

Significant restrictions are also established for such organizations when licensing to engage in special types of activities, obtaining export licenses and quotas, concluding foreign trade contracts and in other aspects. "

Clause 3 of Art. 50 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, non-profit organizations are granted the right to carry out entrepreneurial activities insofar as it serves to achieve the goals for which they were created and corresponds to these goals. It is not limited to any list. Federal Law No. 7-ФЗ "On Non-Commercial Organizations" for non-commercial organizations of various organizational and legal forms establishes different requirements for possible entrepreneurial activity in accordance with its goals. When a non-commercial organization commits actions that contradict its goals, it may be warned in writing by the body that carries out the state registration of legal entities, or the prosecutor made a submission to eliminate violations on the basis of Art. 33 of the Federal Law "On Non-Commercial Organizations".

7. Bodies of state control and supervision in the field of standardization, ensuring the uniformity of measurements and mandatory certification carry out their activities in the manner determined by the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology, taking into account the provisions of the Federal Law "On the Protection of the Rights of Legal Entities and Individual Entrepreneurs during State Control ( supervision) and municipal control ", by the following bodies and organizations that make up the system of state control:

1. Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology, represented by a structural unit, which is responsible for the organization and implementation of state control and supervision;
2. federal government agencies under the jurisdiction of the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology;
3. organizations with the status of a state scientific metrological center, which are under the jurisdiction of the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology and carry out state metrological control.

State control and supervision in the field of standardization, ensuring the uniformity of measurements and mandatory certification includes:

1. state control and supervision over compliance by commercial entities with the mandatory requirements of state standards for goods;
2. state control and supervision over the observance of the rules of mandatory certification by the audited entities and over certified goods;
3. state supervision over compliance with the legislation of the Russian Federation during the accreditation of organizations that assess the conformity of goods to the established quality and safety requirements;
4. state metrological supervision over the release, condition and use of measuring instruments, certified measurement procedures, measurement standards, observance of metrological rules and norms, the number of goods alienated in the course of trade operations, the number of prepackaged goods in packages of any kind during their packaging and sale;
5. state metrological control, including approval of the type of measuring instruments, verification of measuring instruments, including standards, licensing of activities for the manufacture and repair of measuring instruments.

8. Bodies of state supervision and control in the field of ensuring the quality and safety of food products, materials and products in contact with food products and used for the manufacture, packaging, storage, transportation, sale of food products, perfumery and cosmetic products, means and products for cavity hygiene mouth and tobacco products are:

1. Federal Biomedical Agency;
2. Federal Service for Supervision of Consumer Rights Protection and Human Welfare (Rospotrebnadzor);
3. Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology;
4. Federal Service for Veterinary and Phytosanitary Supervision (Rosselkhoznadzor).

State supervision and control over compliance with the legislation of the Russian Federation in the field of quality assurance and food safety includes control over:

1. compliance with the requirements of state standards, state sanitary and epidemiological rules, norms and hygienic standards and veterinary rules, norms and rules of veterinary and sanitary examination during the storage of food products, their transportation and sale, as well as the disposal or destruction of low-quality, dangerous products;
2. compliance with the rules for the sale of certain types of goods in the field of public catering;
3. compliance with the procedure established by the legislation of the Russian Federation for confirming the compliance of food products with the requirements of regulatory documents;
4. the implementation of sanitary-anti-epidemic (prophylactic), veterinary-sanitary and antiepizootic measures aimed at preventing the emergence, spread and elimination of infectious and non-infectious diseases (poisoning) of people associated with the use (use) of food products, as well as animal diseases common to animals and person.

9. The Federal Antimonopoly Service (FAS Russia) is an authorized federal executive body that is responsible for the adoption of regulatory legal acts and control over compliance with antimonopoly legislation, legislation in the field of activities of commercial entities, as well as control in the field of placing orders for the supply of goods for federal state needs.

10. The Federal Tariff Service (FTS of Russia) is a federal executive body authorized to carry out legal regulation in the field of state regulation of prices (tariffs) for goods (services) in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation and control over their application, with the exception of price regulation and tariffs related to the powers of other federal executive bodies, as well as the federal executive body for the regulation of natural monopolies, performing the functions of determining (setting) prices (tariffs) and exercising control on issues related to the determination (setting) and application of prices (tariffs) ) in the spheres of activity of subjects of natural monopolies. The FTS of Russia sets and regulates prices and tariffs for electricity and heat energy (capacity), for gas and its transportation, for freight rail transportation, for the transportation of oil and oil products through main pipelines, for the services of transport terminals, ports, airports, etc.

11. The Federal Customs Service is an authorized federal executive body that, in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, carries out the functions of developing state policy and legal regulation, control and supervision in the field of customs. The functions of the FCS of Russia in commercial turnover are reduced to: 1) maintaining registers of persons carrying out activities in the field of customs; 2) determining the procedure for controlling the customs value of goods; 3) establishing the form and procedure for making preliminary decisions on the classification of goods in accordance with the TN VED in relation to a specific product, about the country of origin of the goods; 4) determination of the procedure and technology for the production of customs clearance, depending on the types of goods transported across the customs border, the type of transport used for such movement; 5) the allocation of categories of persons moving goods and vehicles.

12. The Federal Service for the Regulation of the Alcohol Market (Rosalkogolregulirovanie) exercises the following powers:

1. establishes the procedure for submitting notifications by organizations when purchasing ethyl alcohol for the production of alcoholic and alcohol-containing products and (or) use for their own needs, as well as when supplying ethyl alcohol, bulk alcohol-containing products with an ethyl alcohol content of more than 60% of the finished product;
2. adopts acts establishing minimum prices for vodka, alcoholic beverages and other alcoholic products with a strength of over 28%, produced in the territory of the Russian Federation or imported into the customs territory of the Russian Federation;
3. determines the norms of natural loss during production and circulation (except for retail sale) of ethyl alcohol, alcoholic and alcohol-containing products;
4. establishes the procedure for the acquisition and accounting of federal special stamps, as well as the destruction of unused, damaged and not meeting the established requirements of federal special stamps;
5. generates a list of information about the marked alcoholic beverages;
6. determines the procedure for assessing the reliability of accounting for production volumes and turnover (except for retail sale) of ethyl alcohol, alcoholic and alcohol-containing products;
7. carries out licensing, in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, of activities in the field of production and circulation of ethyl alcohol, alcoholic and alcohol-containing products;
8. issues federal special stamps for labeling alcoholic beverages produced on the territory of the Russian Federation;
9. exercises state control over the production, circulation, quality and safety of ethyl alcohol, alcoholic and alcohol-containing products, etc.

The service market exists in unity with the commodity market and is one of its varieties, developing within the framework of the general laws of a market economy. At the same time, the service market has a number of specific features that determine a special approach to entrepreneurial activity.

The main features of the service sector include: a high degree of uncertainty in services puts the buyer at a disadvantage, i.e. often the provision of services requires special, specialized knowledge and skills that are difficult for the buyer to evaluate; the impossibility of comparing two competing offers due to the joint process of production and consumption of the service.

You can only compare the expected benefits and the received; buyer's inertia is the main factor in ensuring the repeatability of purchasing a service; high sensitivity to changes in market conditions. It is due to the impossibility of storing and transporting the service. This property of services creates difficulties in entrepreneurial activity, because causes increased requirements for the accuracy of analysis and forecasting of demand for services; the specifics of the organization of production of services. Service providers are mainly small and medium-sized enterprises of various profiles. With greater mobility, they have ample opportunities for flexible response to changes in market conditions and they are more effective in a local market; the specifics of the service rendering process. This specificity is due to the obligatory personal contact between the seller and the buyer, which increases the requirements for the professional qualities, ethics and culture of the manufacturer.

Science differentiates services provided on a commercial basis,

For 10 groups, including:

housing provision services;

family service (home renovation, landscape maintenance, cleaning of living quarters, etc.);

recreation and entertainment;

individual sanitary and hygienic services (washing, dry cleaning, cosmetic services, etc.);

medical and other health care services;

private education;

services in the field of business and other professional services (legal, accounting, consulting, etc.);

insurance and financial services;

transport services;

communications services;

non-physical goods services non-physical goods services.

There is another service classification scheme, Figure 1.

Figure 1 Classification of services

The service market is constantly developing and improving. Many services are characterized by high costs and low reliability. One of the solutions to this problem is the use of complexes of hard, soft and hybrid technologies.

Soft technologies replace individual services with pre-planned packages. Service quality and customer satisfaction are closely related to each other. Satisfaction is the result of receiving the highest quality service. Higher quality also leads to greater customer and employee loyalty, increased market share, increased investor income, lower costs, and sensitivity to price competition. Even one of these reasons is enough to strive for quality and continuous improvement.

Having characterized and classified the services, one cannot fail to mention that the purchase of any service begins with the presence of a corresponding need from the buyer. A service, as a specific commodity, does not exist separately from the producer; its consumption is carried out in the form of "consumer production". In this respect, the production and consumption of services always has a one-stage nature and does not include the stages of transportation and storage.

Consumption of a service is directly related to the direct satisfaction of human needs - social needs. The latter constitute the objective basis for the formation of the services market.

The service industries are extremely diverse. The service sector includes the public sector with its courts, labor exchanges, hospitals, loan offices, military services, police, fire brigade, post office, regulators and schools, and the private non-profit sector with its museums, charities, churches, colleges, foundations. and hospitals. The service sector also includes a good portion of the commercial sector, with its airlines, banks, computer bureaus, hotels, insurance companies, law firms, management consulting firms, private practitioners, film firms, plumbing fixtures and real estate firms.

Service sectors:

airlines;

transport organizations (railway, water, automobile);

hotel industry;

Insurance companies;

law firms;

Along with the traditional service industries, new services are constantly emerging. Firms have appeared that, for a certain fee, will help you balance your budget, wake you up in the morning, take you to work, or find a new home, a new job, a new wife, a predictor of the future, etc.

If you need business services, other firms will schedule conferences and trade meetings, design the right products for you, process the necessary data, or make available temporary secretaries and even supervisors.

Service commerce includes the rental of goods, alteration or repair of goods owned by consumers, and personal services. Sometimes goods and services are mixed. However, when we buy the use of a hotel room, we do not take anything with us except the memory of the stay. While the consultant's products may take the form of an intertwined message, the consumer is buying brains rather than paper and ink.

Various services have varying degrees of relevance and social significance for consumers. For example, consumer services traditionally occupy a significant segment of the non-manufacturing sector.

Commercial activity in services is those actions through which the services of firms reach customers.

From the point of view of the practical actions of a service firm, it is a process designed to help others evaluate your services, assess their quality, speed of implementation and on time. The main goal and direction of commercial services is to help the client appreciate the firm (organization) and its services.

The commercialization of services is greatly complicated by the fact that it often sells to the client SOMETHING that does not have a specific material form; sells a promise to do something of value to the customer (clean the suit well).

An important element of service commerce is the creation of favorable conditions for the provision of services. At the same time, a merchant must always remember that services are associated with a specific person and his type of activity.

A prerequisite for the commercialization of services is an effective and psychologically correct advertising of a particular service.

The seller has his own problems:

it is difficult to show customers your product;

it is difficult to explain to clients what he pays money for.

Therefore, the merchant should know that the keywords in the advertising of services are the benefits and benefits that the client receives by contacting this company.

Commercial activity in the service sector must proceed from the non-persistence or inability of the services to be stored.

Immediacy is an important distinguishing feature of services. Services cannot be saved for further sale: unsold tickets, unoccupied hotel rooms, empty hairdressing salons, baths.

If the demand for services becomes greater than the supply, then this cannot be quickly corrected, as in trade, industry (the number of people wishing to stay in a hotel is greater than the number of available places). Similarly, if the supply of services is higher than the demand, the profit falls. As a rule, the demand for services varies depending on the season, on the days of the week. In summer, the flow of passengers increases, and there are fewer bar visitors.

In order to smooth out seasonal fluctuations in supply and demand for services, a merchant-entrepreneur may decide to establish differentiated prices, discounts on the cost of services, organize pre-orders, introduce additional services during periods of peak demand, train personnel to combine functions, etc.

These distinctive characteristics, features of services make commercial management in the service sector more difficult than in trade, industry, from the point of view of ensuring efficiency.

The main functions of commercial work in the service sector are:

studying the demand in the service market and forecasting it;

knowledge of competitors;

expansion of the sphere of services, service;

determination of an effective pricing policy;

development of service business development plans at enterprises.

After analyzing the essence and content of commercial activities in the service sector, we can conclude that commercial activities in services are the actions of the firm, thanks to which the services of the firm reach customers, and also that the services are not saved and have a specificity of the moment.

1.3 The main directions of improving commercial activities in the service sector

The activities of enterprises to promote services are undergoing changes under the influence of social, political, economic, demographic, environmental, scientific and technical factors. Problems that are brewing as a result of the impact of external and internal factors either slow down the development of the enterprise, or push the industry to a new round of scientific and technological progress.

Thus, the promotion of services takes a special place in the activities of the enterprise, since is aimed at strengthening economic ties between the enterprise and the client. As a sales subsystem of an enterprise, promotion is especially sensitive to changes in market factors, therefore, this area of ​​the enterprise's activity deserves a comprehensive study. In practice, the company needs to create conditions that would ensure a stable volume of sales of products and services.

The promotion of goods and services should be viewed as a complex system consisting of several interconnected subsystems of marketing tools, events and economic categories used to reduce the time it takes for goods to move from producer to consumer.

Most businesses use a retract strategy. Therefore, the assessment of its implementation in the distribution channel is recommended to be carried out on a five-point scale according to the following indicators:

• - consistency of the communication strategy with the marketing strategy of the enterprise;
• - the validity of spending on advertising and stimulating consumers in order to form consumer demand;
• - achieving a strategic goal - creating a positive attitude towards the product at the level of final demand;
• - strategy as a long-term investment.

Advertising, public relations and sales promotion strategies must be subordinate to the communication strategy and aimed at achieving the marketing goals of the enterprise, including corporate goals in general. The goals of the advertising strategy are:

• - to enable a potential consumer to find out about the existence of a product;
• - to acquaint him with the consumer characteristics of the product;
• - to convince the consumer of the need to own this product;
• - arouse the consumer's desire to have this service;
• - purchase a service.

An advertising strategy should be aimed at activating a latent or passive need, at stimulating the buyer to maintain the belief that a product or service is the best way to satisfy the desired needs. It should be related to the competitive strategy of the enterprise and the goals of expanding market share. Competitive strategy, in turn, is related to the investment objectives of the enterprise. Thus, the protection of market share is related to the investment goal of retention (protection), and the expansion of market share is related to the investment goal of growth. Based on this, the following advertising strategies are distinguished:

• - creating a need,
• - development of needs,
• - focusing on needs,
• - satisfaction of needs.

The objectives of the strategy in the field of public relations are: creation of external and internal socio-psychological environment favorable for the success of the organization; establishing or maintaining mutually beneficial, harmonious ties, mutual understanding and goodwill between the organization and the public, on which its success or failure depends.

Analysis of the activities of enterprises to promote goods and services on the market made it possible to highlight its main tools:

• - advertising, i.e. the use by the enterprise of special means of disseminating information in order to bring the necessary information about a product or service to a potential consumer. Advertising is a powerful incentive;
• - sales promotion is a set of short-term incentives, the purpose of which is to stimulate the consumer market and its own personnel. In recent years, enterprises have noted an excess of the growth rate of costs for sales promotion over the growth rate of advertising costs;
• - personal (personal) sales is a tool of a promotion complex, which involves individual communication between an employee of an enterprise and a potential buyer. F. Kotler believes that a personal sale is an oral presentation of a product during a conversation with one or more potential buyers in order to make a sale.

Thus, with the development of market relations and information technologies, advertising, sales promotion, personal sales have become a powerful marketing tool capable of ensuring the effective sale of a modern Russian enterprise. At the same time, specialists assign a special role to personal sales. Hence it follows that it is necessary to pay more attention to the further evolution of personal selling technologies and to use all their capabilities and advantages.

Questions

to the State exam in the specialty 1-25 01 10 "Commercial activity"

by discipline: "Commercial activity"

1. The market for goods and services and factors affecting its condition

2. Concept, role and tasks of commercial activity in the market of goods and services

3. The main elements of the content of the commercial activity of a commercial enterprise and their relationship

4 Characteristics of the subjects of commercial relationships and the requirements for commercial workers

5. Information support of commercial activities

6.Commercial secrets and their protection

7.The concept of consumer demand and the task of studying it

8 types of consumer demand of the population

9.Methods of studying the demand of the population

10.Features of studying the demand in the wholesale trade

11. Market conditions: concept, objectives and goals of its study

12.The concept, the essence of the assortment policy of a commercial enterprise

13.Indicators characterizing the state of the assortment of goods in the store

14. Formation of an assortment of goods in wholesale enterprises

15. Principles and stages of formation of the assortment of goods in retail outlets

16. Formation of the assortment of goods in stores by consumer complexes

17 Stocks and their role in business continuity

18. The essence and classification of economic ties for the supply of goods

19. Contractual work and its content

20.Legal regulation of economic relations for the supply of consumer goods

21. Business relations for the supply of goods for state needs in the Republic of Belarus

22.Sources of bulk purchases and suppliers of goods on the market

23. Wholesale fairs: concept, purpose and classification

24. Methods and operations of the wholesale of goods from the warehouses of wholesale enterprises

25. The concept, role and indicators of the economic efficiency of advertising in commercial activities

27. The essence and objectives of commercial activities in retail trade to stimulate the sale of goods

28. The system of indicators characterizing the effectiveness of commercial activities

29. Concept, essence, subject and subject of leasing

30. The essence of franchising and its role in the development of small business.

Private educational institution

Institute of Entrepreneurship

Department of Commercial Activity

Answers

to questions about discipline

"Commercial activity"

for students of the specialty

1-25 01 10 "Commercial activity"

Developed by an assistant professor

Department of Commercial Activity

V.P. Kholopovsky

Minsk 2009

"COMMERCIAL ACTIVITY"

(Questions and answers on discipline to HES)

Question 1. The market for goods and services and factors affecting its condition .

Answer. The category "market" is a capacious and diverse concept, which gives rise to many points of view on its nature and origin. Market definition has a long history. His can be defined as the socio-economic sphere of relations in the system of commodity economy arising between sellers and buyers in the process of commodity exchange.

Therefore, we can talk about the market in two aspects:

as about a certain area, space, territory where the intentions of sellers and buyers materialize, and as about specific relations between subjects and market objects that are present in the named area.

This is the dual nature of the market as a category and its specificity as an object of management.

As for the consumer goods market, it can be defined as the sphere and essence of relations between subjects and market objects that arise in the process of realizing a part of the aggregate social product aimed at personal consumption.

As an object of management, the market for goods is characterized by the following main elements:

demand, supply of goods, the degree of balance between supply and demand, capacity, conjuncture, macro- and microstructure, market infrastructure, purchasing funds of the population and price.

The following factors influence the consumer market :

-economic(the state of the country's economy, domestic production of consumer goods, lending, the solvency of organizations and enterprises, the presence of an economic crisis, etc.), social(the population's ability to pay, the level of wages, pensions, scholarships, benefits, other social payments, the proportion of workers, employees, the intelligentsia), demographic(number of population, including: women, men, children, pensioners) , political and legal(the degree of influence of state power on the country's economy, the state and updating of the legal base), scientific and technical(the level of development of scientific and technological progress, the state of science, production innovation, etc.) , cultural(level of general culture, level of production culture, trade, national traditions, customs) , external(state of foreign economic and international relations, etc.

Question 2: The concept and role of commercial activity

Answer. Commerce- a word of Latin origin (commercium - trade). Commerce is a type of commercial entrepreneurship or business, but a noble business, the business that is the main part of any truly civilized market economy

The Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language of V. I. Dal defines commerce as "bargaining, trade, trade turnover, merchant crafts"

The concept of CA as an object of research was formulated by the Harvard School of CA Management in 1958.

The classic definition is that a business exists to meet consumer demands at a profit.

commercial activity- a narrower concept than entrepreneurship.

Entrepreneurship- is the organization of economic, industrial and other activities that bring income to the entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship can mean the organization of an industrial enterprise, a rural farm, a commercial enterprise, etc. Of all these types of entrepreneurial activity, only trade is a purely commercial activity.

Thus, commerce should be seen as one of directions(types of) entrepreneurial activity. At the same time, in entrepreneurial activity, transactions can be carried out on the sale and purchase of goods, raw materials, prepared products, semi-finished products, etc., i.e. directions or elements of commercial activity can be inherent in all types of entrepreneurship, but they are not decisive, the main ones.

Hence, commercial work in trade represents an extensive sphere of operational and organizational activities of trade organizations and enterprises, aimed at completing the processes of buying and selling goods in the consumer market to meet the demand of the population and make a profit.

Commercial activities are characterized as:

activity on the market in the field of commodity-money relations;

activities carried out on the principles of marketing and aimed at maximizing profits;

management activities, including targeted management decisions on the objects of collection and processing of the necessary information and the implementation of relevant decisions.

The purpose of the CBA is the sale of the largest number of goods with the highest income and at the same time ensuring a high reputation of the company, achieving sustainable maximum sales in the future.

Peculiarities CD:

commercial work arises only when trade organizations bear full economic responsibility for the purchase and sale of goods;

commercial work is not limited to the trade industry, as the wholesale sellers and buyers of goods and services are fictitious enterprises;

commercial work has its own content and therefore requires dedicated service and appropriate professionals.

Principles of CA: inextricable link with the principles of marketing; allocation of priorities;

responsibility for the fulfillment of the assumed obligations under trade transactions;

focus on achieving profit.

CD functions:

marketing research; product assortment and quality management;

sales management, promotion of goods and services.

Question 3. The main elements of the commercial activity of a commercial enterprise and their relationship

Answer. Commercial activity consists of the following elements:

study of consumer demand and determination of the need for goods;

formation of a competitive assortment;

selection of partners for the establishment of economic ties and channels for the promotion of goods;

establishment of economic ties between partners * and purchase of goods

control over the fulfillment of contractual obligations for the supply of goods;

inventory management;

commercial activities for the wholesale of goods;

services or maintenance;

commercial activities for the organization of retail sale of goods;

study and forecasting of market trends;

collection and processing of information about potential competitors;

formation of a policy of price strategy;

streamlining the process of selling goods.

All elements of the CD are interconnected, create a single system, despite their different directions. In this case, the elements of the internal environment are more important.

Each element of the CD performs certain functions, and in the aggregate they represent a system or subsystem in the overall structure.

Question 4. Characteristics of subjects of commercial legal relations .

The subjects of commercial legal relations are the parties entering into contractual relations for the sale and purchase of goods or the provision of services.

They can be national and foreign commercial enterprises, organizations, their associations (unions, associations), non-profit organizations engaged in entrepreneurial activities, as well as individual entrepreneurs.

Subjects of commercial legal relations, depending on their legal status, are divided into legal persons and persons engaged in commercial activities without forming a legal entity.

Legal entities include commercial organizations whose main purpose is to make a profit, and non-profit organizations that do not have the goal of their activities to make a profit and do not distribute it among the founders.

Persons engaged in commercial activities without forming a legal entity organize it in the form of a simple partnership and commercial concession (franchising).

In accordance with the international classification, subjects of commercial legal relations are divided into four groups:

firms ;unions of entrepreneurs; government bodies;

public organizations .

Firms. The term "firm" is used in world practice to conventionally designate a partner in economic relations pursuing commercial goals - making a profit.

.Joint-stock company represents the organizational form of the association of enterprises, organizations and individuals (shareholders). Its funds are formed by issuing and placing shares.

By the nature of ownership, firms are divided into public and private .

By ownership of capital, firms can be national, foreign, mixed.

According to the goals of the merger, the degree of independence of the company is divided into cartels, trusts, concerns, holding companies, financial groups.

As subjects commercial operations on the market of the Republic of Belarus industrial enterprises and trade organizations of various forms of ownership and departmental affiliation operate.

State industrial enterprises and trade organizations .

These include trade organizations and industrial enterprises of ministries, departments, committees: the Ministry of Trade, local councils, LDCs, trade departments, the Ministry of Agriculture and Food, the Ministry of Transport and Communications, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Communications, etc.

In the consumer market of the Republic of Belarus, a number of state entities of commercial transactions act as concerns subordinated to the government :

Belneftekhim, Bellegprom, Belmestprom, Belgospischeprom, Belbiopharm, Belmorrybprom, Bellesbumprom, etc.

They carry out wholesale and retail trade.

Non-governmental trade organizations . Collectively Responsible Organizations:

Consumer cooperation trade organizations; collective farms; cooperatives; rental organizations, small businesses, limited liability companies, etc.

Mixed-ownership entities, including joint ventures.

Private organizations.

The subjects of commercial transactions can be unions of entrepreneurs . Unlike firms (enterprises), the purpose of their activities is not to make a profit, but to represent and protect the interests of their constituent groups of entrepreneurs in government bodies, to provide assistance and support in expanding their activities.

Situations are possible when the relationship for the sale of goods and services enter public organizations . These can be international organizations of the UN system, which act as large buyers of goods, medicines, medical equipment, services, etc.,. In addition, such public organizations as the Society of Hunters and Fishermen, the Union of Artists, the Society for the Conservation of Nature, the Society of the Disabled, the Society of the Deaf, the Association of the Visually Impaired, etc. operate in the market of the Republic of Belarus.

Question 5. Information support of commercial activities .

Answer. Information (lat. - information ) - message about something.

Commercial information - this is information about the current situation in the market for various goods and services. This includes the quantitative and qualitative indicators of the trading activities of the company (commercial structure, trading enterprise, etc.), various information and data on commercial activities (prices, suppliers, competitors, terms of delivery, calculations, assortment of goods, etc.).

The purpose of commercial information is that it allows trade organizations (enterprises) to analyze their commercial activities, plan it, and monitor the results of these activities (work efficiency).

To the Kommersant for successful work as necessary as air commercial information. He needs constant information about clients, competitors, dealers (intermediary businessmen). Operational data for analysis, planning, control.

Market situation constantly changing or it may change at any moment. And if the continuous flow (update) of information data is not established, the company can do not react in time for certain changes. Any merchant of a Western firm, before answering the question "What is the position of a particular product on the market?"

Sources of commercial information can serve:

-marketing research for specific goods;

An important source of commercial information are interior materials and documents of a trading company, in particular, information on the volume of trade, sales costs, inventory, profits, advertising costs, etc.;

Another source of commercial information are external statistics data and published information on the state of the market in the mass media.

Recently, more and more widespread buying information from various companies,

The most important element of commercial activity is a comprehensive study of the market for goods and services:

1. Study of buyers and shopping motives.

2. Study of market requirements for a product

3 ... Meticulous study of his conjuncture ;

4. AND investigation of the competitive environment and competitors;

5 .Examining the potential of a trade organization and its competitiveness .

Consumer information is economic foundation commercial activity, as it contributes to the formation of proposals on the market for goods and services in accordance with their demand. Information about consumers and their requests increases the efficiency of commercial work.

For a successful business, it is important the right choice of goods and services to be traded.

The main expert when evaluating goods is the buyer, therefore, it is important to find out exactly how the product is perceived by the end consumer.

Competitiveness t ovar is a set of its characteristics accompanying the sale and consumption of services.

Trade organization, you must have the following information about the product:

its quality (technical and economic indicators, operational characteristics; consumer properties, environmental friendliness, safety, ergonomic, aesthetic indicators, their compliance with the requirements of standards, specifications, regulatory documents, certificates, etc.). Attention is drawn on the ratio of quality and price.

Of no small importance is product packaging ..

Studying the product, it is necessary to determine which is acceptable scheme for promoting it to the market what methods of sales and sales promotion, how much the work will cost with this product on the market.

Question 6. Trade secret and its protection.

Answer. Unlike the state trade secret is determined directly by a specific enterprise (organization) independently, is its property and is protected by the security service of the enterprise itself. With the development of market relations, the role of commercial information increases. It becomes a commodity and a means of competition. In this regard, the attitude towards its protection is changing.

The legislation of the Republic of Belarus establishes the right to a certain freedom of entrepreneurship, protection of one's interests in relations with the state and other subjects of market relations.

In the Republic of Belarus, the concept of a commercial secret is given in Regulations on commercial secrets, approved by the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus.

Commercial secret - deliberately concealed economic interests and information about various aspects and spheres of production, economic, managerial, scientific and technical, financial activities of a business entity, the protection of which is due to the interests of competition and a possible threat to the economic security of a business entity.

Information constituting a commercial secret is the property of a business entity. In a real situation, a trade secret always takes the form of trade secrets. Therefore, every secret is a secret, but not every secret is a secret.

Commercial secrets are a form of manifestation of commercial secrets.

Classified I am trade secrets by the nature of a trade secret, by ownership of the owner, by appointment of trade secrets.

Bearer of a trade secret is a person who is aware of the commercial secrets of the enterprise, and the sources of closed commercial information are documents, schemes, technologies, samples, products, know-how.

Great damage can be caused to organizations industrial espionage... This is an illegal collection of information constituting a trade secret.

As a document that formulates the principles developed by international practice, is the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (1883).

In the Republic of Belarus, a unified concept of commercial secrets and special legislation are being formed to regulate and protect it.

Its various aspects are governed by the Design Patent Laws; About trademarks and service marks; About patents for images and utility models; Regulations on commercial secrets. The last document defines the economic and legal basis for the protection of commercial secrets. Uniform requirements for information have been formulated, constituting a trade secret assuming the following:

trade secret can be information of actual or potential value;

information should not be publicly known and publicly available;

information that is commercial secret, must be properly marked (top secret, for official use, etc.);

information should not be a state secret and protected by copyright or patent law;

shouldn't touch negative activity of a business entity that can harm the interests of the state.

The Regulation on Trade Secrets is clearly defined for business entities of all forms of ownership and departmental affiliation, what information cannot be classified as a trade secret, namely:

constituent documents, licenses for licensed activities;

intelligence, provided by the established forms of reporting on the financial and economic activities of the enterprise; data needed f to check the correctness of the payment of taxes and other mandatory payments; the documents about solvency, etc.

The methodology for classifying certain information as a commercial secret in the Republic of Belarus is still not formed... Each organization, its leader decides this issue independently.

The subject of a trade secret is information that can be divided into next two groups :

Business information ; Scientific and technical (technological) information :

According to the degree of secrecy, it can be :

strictly confidential, confidential, not subject to publicity ,.

Opinion polls show that among ways of illegal seizure of commercial mystery takes first place bribery of employees, i.e. human factor. Followed by espionage... Currently very widely used technical funds penetration, which requires special protection measures.

Information protection involves the prevention of leakage, theft, loss, unauthorized access, copying, destruction, distortion, modification (forgery), blocking of information, etc.

The mechanism for protecting trade secrets should include the following blocks:

At the macro level : rule of law aimed at protecting the interests of its owner (laws, decrees, regulations, etc.).

At the micro level : norms set by the head organizations (orders, orders, instructions);

special structural divisions;

effective system of measures to protect commercial secrets, which must be comprehensive;

Organizational work... It includes the development concepts ensuring the security of information constituting a commercial secret, and the formation of a package of necessary organizational and planning documentation that ensures its effective protection, confirmed by the competent authorities.

Question 7. The concept of consumer demand and the task of studying it

Answer. Demand - a solvent need for goods and services on the market or a form of manifestation of that part of the need that is provided by purchasing power, that is, money.

In consumer demand, a distinction is made between volume and structure.

Demand volume is determined by the amount of money that the population has, minus the amount of non-commodity expenses.

Total demand is recorded only in monetary terms, and the volume of demand for individual goods in the amount and in kind.

Demand structure expresses the quantitative ratio of the solvent need for individual goods.

Demand study tasks. The essence of demand, its relationship with needs, product supply, as well as the dependence of demand on many factors are a necessary prerequisite for understanding the purpose, task and importance of studying it.

The process of studying the demand in retail trade is the collection, processing and analysis of the necessary information for strategic, tactical and operational decisions on the development of production of consumer goods, management of inventories, as well as their purchase and sale. This definition makes clear the strategic importance of work on the study of demand in trade for the subsequent use of this information by manufacturing enterprises. This information can be offered to manufacturing enterprises as a marketing service and from this trade can generate additional income.

Question 8. Types of consumer demand.

Answer. NS payback demand is subdivided into:

realized (demand, which found its satisfaction in the form of the purchase of a product or service; quantitatively expressed by the amount of goods sold);

dissatisfied th(demand for goods that at a certain point in time were not available for sale, although they are produced and in circulation);

emerging (demand for goods that are being prepared for production).

When studying demand, the following are important classification signs:

By the nature of the need to purchase:

* steady demand(not allowing replacement of goods);

* unstable(definitively formed in the store at the direct

familiarization with the goods);

impulsive(arises under the influence of impulses; the decisive role of the seller; advertising; a wide range of goods).

By the degree of repeatability:

* primary(demand for goods purchased for the first time);

* repeated(demand for familiar goods or replacement).

By the frequency of demand:

* everyday; * periodic: * episodic.

By prevalence:

* unit; * limited; * mass.

Question 9. Methods for studying the demand of the population

Answer: Demand Research - is the collection, processing and analysis of information necessary for

making planned decisions on the production of goods and making commercial decisions on the purchase and sale of goods.

Demand research methods- a set of methods and techniques by which the collection, processing and analysis of information about demand is carried out, its quantitative dimensions and qualitative characteristics are determined

Methods for studying demand are chosen depending on the type of store, the specifics of the product, types of demand, information support, tasks and research goals.

Realized demand : when studying it, the methods of systematic and periodic accounting of demand are used.

Systematic study methods:

* automated accounting using computers;

* registration of purchases in special magazines highlighting the various features of products required for research;

* accounting of cash register receipts, which allows you to determine the cost of goods sold at a known price of their quantity;

* accounting of sales receipts;

* accounting for the sale of goods under two labels.

You can periodically study the realized demand using balance method.

Sales = stocks at the beginning + receipts - stocks at the end - documented consumption. Trade Shows - Sales are also to study realized demand.

Unsatisfied demand for goods of sufficient assortment can be studied by the following methods:

* customer surveys in written and oral form;

* according to the journal of accounting of unsatisfied demand, in which store employees must register the goods requested by the buyer, but not available for sale;

* registration of sheets of unsatisfied demand that buyers fill out;

* spending days of unmet demand.

Emerging demand ... Methods: exhibitions - views of samples of new products, testing of new products by specialists, trade workers and buyers, trial sale, exhibition-sale, exhibition-tasting, oral and written surveys, purchasing conferences.

In addition to the named methods of studying demand, the following are also used:

- expert assessments of the balance of the intragroup structure of supply and demand. Experts are experienced specialists who have knowledge and are able to express a reasoned opinion about the phenomenon and process under study;

- commodity examination of new products;

Question 10. Features of the study of demand in the wholesale trade.

Answer. The main objectives of studying market conditions and demand of wholesalers :

Organization and implementation of complex observations of the trade situation and the demand of wholesale buyers in the area of ​​its activity;

Organization of receiving and processing information about the trade situation and the demand of the population from enterprises and organizations of retail trade;

Organization of receiving and processing information about the development of production and supply of new goods from industrial enterprises and other suppliers;

Organization of preparation of forecast calculations, market surveys necessary to determine the volume of purchases of goods, as well as work with suppliers to improve the range and quality of goods.

Commercial Observations the development of market conditions, To meet demand, wholesale enterprises carry out a special program that covers:

Analysis of the regulatory impact of the state on the level of prices and requirements for the quality of goods;

Study of the volume and structure of the supply of goods from industrial enterprises and other suppliers;

Determination of the total volume of demand and its structure by groups of goods; study and forecast of the structure of demand in the range;

Study of demand by types: realized, unsatisfied, emerging;

Assessment of the degree of satisfaction of demand by analyzing information about the production, supply and sale of goods.

Besides to study demand wholesale enterprises carried out active activities such as: trade fairs, viewing fairs, buying conferences, customer and expert polls, merchandising examinations of new products and much more.

Question 11. Market conditions: concept, objectives and goals of its study

Answer: Market conditions - it is a specific economic situation in the market of consumer goods, characterized by a certain ratio between supply and demand, price level, the size of inventories and is subject to dynamic changes.

With this in mind, under conjuncture one should understand the entire set of economic conditions emerging in the market at any given moment, under which the process of selling goods and services is carried out.

Figuratively speaking, market conditions there is an indicator of his "health".

The purpose of the study... The main objectives of studying market conditions are:

* organization and direct implementation of complex observations of the market situation and the demand of wholesale buyers in the area of ​​its activity;

* organizing the receipt and processing of information about the market situation and demand from the retail trade enterprises and organizations;

* organization of receiving and processing information on plans for the development of production and supply, the introduction of new goods from industrial enterprises and other suppliers;

* organization of preparation of forecast calculations, market surveys necessary to determine the volume of purchases of various goods, as well as for the current work with suppliers to improve the range and quality of goods

Considering that conjuncture is a set of conditions, factors under the influence of which a certain relationship between demand and supply develops, the commercial service should know these factors and the degree of their influence, the demand of the population, its structure, the reasons for the change, the peculiarities of formation and development.

The commercial service must have data on the possible volumes and structure of the product offer, the degree of renewal of the assortment, information about new products, information characterizing the product, the price level, offers from suppliers and the possibilities of increasing them.

Market items - market participants; structure and volume of movement of goods on the market; demand and consumption of goods; competitors' policies; commercial conditions for the sale of products.

Tasks : -with systematic observation of changes in the market of goods, their nomenclature;

Control over the constant availability of the established assortment of goods in the sale and its timely replenishment;

Registration of realized and unmet demand;

Identifying generating demand;

Selective accounting of sales and stocks for the intragroup structure of goods;

Preparation of proposals for improving the quality and assortment structure of manufactured goods.

Market conditions may be favorable (the demand of the population for goods and services is fully satisfied, the product offer in terms of assortment and quality meets the requirements of consumers and a high level of buyers' culture is ensured).

Unfavorable I am(the results of market observations are summarized in the market review).

Question 12. The concept and essence of the assortment policy of a commercial enterprise .

Answer In the context of the development of competition and the increasing uncertainty of the external environment in relation to the enterprise, it becomes more and more necessary strategic approach to the management of the trade assortment. This approach ensures the development of an assortment policy for the organization of trade. Assortment policy of the trade organization - a system of strategic measures aimed at creating a competitive model, ensuring a stable position of the enterprise in the market and obtaining the necessary profit.

This policy is central to the organization's commercial strategy in the retail market. Its main goal in modern economic conditions is to determine the set of goods that are most preferable for the consumers served.

However, it is difficult to satisfy the needs of all consumers without exception, since they differ in their requirements for goods and services. This problem is solved segmentation- division of potential buyers into certain groups according to some criteria (gender, age, level of monetary income, social status, etc.).

The main purpose of segmentation - ensure the targeting of the goods and services sold. Market segmentation- one of the most important tools of the assortment policy, and the competitiveness of the organization largely depends on how correctly the segment (segments) of the market is chosen.

The choice of the market segment (segments) and the development of all components of the policy of organizing trade in the field of assortment, taking into account the requirements of a specific group of consumers, taking into account the factors of the environment of activity, allows define such an assortment policy as active.

Thus, active assortment policy involves the solution of the following most important tasks: meeting the demand of specific groups of consumers; flexible response to market requirements; ensuring the financial stability of a trading organization.

The assortment policy for a particular store (or trade organization), expressed in the developed, approved and agreed assortment (assortment) list (lists), requires implementation assortment positioning .

Assortment positioning of a trade organization - the process of selecting special competitive advantages in the range of offered goods and services, and delivering information about them to the target consumer.

The goal of positioning is to find a special niche within the target segment that is not occupied by competitors. For example, “Milavitsa” brand stores present themselves in the group of corsages for all types and a significant number of varieties.

The development and implementation of an assortment policy requires compliance with the following conditions:

A clear understanding of the commercial strategy of the organization in the retail market;

Good knowledge of the retail market and the nature of consumer requirements;

A clear idea of ​​your capabilities and resources, now and in the future.

A well-thought-out assortment policy of the organization of retail trade is a kind of guarantor not only of building an optimal assortment model of the store, but also of maintaining competitive positions in the market, affects the formation of the company's image

Question 13. Indicators characterizing the state of the assortment of goods in the store .

Answer. The assortment of any store can be to characterize by the system of indicators... This will make it possible to carry out the process of managing the trade assortment on a scientific basis, that is, to plan, organize its formation, control and regulate the assortment, improve the motivation of sellers and stimulate sales.

Range of assortment - the number of groups and subgroups of goods included in the store's assortment. According to their share in turnover and stocks, the assortment structure is distinguished. specialized and department stores .

Assortment depth - the number of types and varieties (names) of goods within groups and subgroups in the assortment of the store.

For example, latitude The assortment of the department store with a sales area of ​​650 m 2 is represented by the following groups: fabrics, garments, knitwear, footwear and haberdashery. And 99 varieties of fabrics, 316 varieties of garments, 311 varieties of knitted goods and 139 varieties of shoes and 109 - haberdashery products determine the depth of the assortment of this store .

Assortment structure - this is the ratio of groups, subgroups, types and varieties of goods in the assortment of the store. It is characterized by latitude and depth indicators. The structure of the assortment is of decisive importance when organizing its formation in the store.

Distinguish between concepts macro- and microstructures assortment of store goods.

Under macrostructure understand the relationship between groups of goods in the general assortment, and by microstructure - the ratio of species and varieties in each commodity group.

In maintaining the range of goods in accordance with the demand of the population, an important role is played by completeness and stability assortment of goods in the store.

Completeness of assortment - this is the compliance of the actual availability of goods in the store with the approved assortment list.

Renewability of the assortment - replenishment of the assortment with new varieties of goods in accordance with the assortment policy of the enterprise. It is acceptable to update up to 10% of the retail assortment of the store per year.

A special place among the indicators of the state of the assortment is occupied by the indicator of its profitability. Under profitability of the trade assortment they understand such an assortment set, which, in its totality, ensures that business entities receive the planned amount of net profit, i.e. a certain excess of income over the cost of selling goods and tax and non-tax payments

Question 14. Formation of an assortment of goods in wholesale enterprises

Answer: Wholesale trade, acting as an intermediary between production and the consumer, must ensure a rhythmic supply of goods to the retail trade network that meets the demand of buyers in terms of quantity, assortment and quality. Therefore, the formation of the assortment of the wholesale base is its most important commercial function.

Formation of the product range in the wholesale trade involves the development and establishment in a certain order of the nomenclature of goods, designed to meet the demand of buyers and ensure the profitable operation of the base

The formation of the assortment of goods of wholesale organizations is influenced by:

1. Specialization of the wholesale intermediary

2. Contingent of wholesale buyers

3. Terms of supply, etc.

The range of wholesale organizations provides for group and intra-group

the structure of goods, therefore, the formation of the assortment is carried out in two stages, i.e.:

Establish a group assortment based on marketing research;

The number of varieties of each type of product is calculated;

Formation process the assortment of the wholesale organization includes:

1. Assessment of the current situation in the wholesale trade

2. Development of a product policy strategy

3. Expansion of the assortment due to new products and improvement of its structure;

4. Ensuring the stability of the assortment of consumer goods;

5. Achievement of conditions conducive to the growth of trade turnover and income of trade

organizations.

In practice, the development of assortment models for wholesalers is often used.

It consists of three stages:

Determination of the group assortment structure of the wholesale base;

Justification of the number of varieties of goods required for the formation of the annual assortment;

Determination of the minimum required number of varieties of goods, which must constantly be in the warehouses of the base (irreducible assortment

Question 15. Principles and stages of formation of the assortment of goods in retail outlets

Answer: The main principles formation of an assortment of goods in trade organizations are:

1. Compliance with the established assortment profile of the organization

2. Ensuring complexity in the selection of goods in accordance with the demand of the population

3. The assortment of goods in organizations should stimulate the consumer to buy and be wider than the range of requested goods in order to provide him with a choice.

Specific factors affecting the formation of the assortment of goods reflect the specific conditions of the trade organization. These include the type of store and the size of the store, the conditions for supplying goods, the number and composition of the population served, transport conditions, the presence of other trade organizations in the area of ​​operation of this store.

The process of forming an assortment of goods in various stores has its own characteristics. So, in supermarkets, food and non-food products are distinguished, and within the groups, the entire range of goods is divided into product subgroups, groups and names, and varieties are distinguished within the names.

In the Republic of Tatarstan, the process of forming an assortment includes 3 stages:

1. A group assortment of goods is established

2. The structure of the group assortment is calculated

3. An intragroup expanded assortment of goods is determined, specific types of goods are selected within each group.

Question 16. Formation of the assortment of goods in stores for consumer complexes

Answer. When forming an assortment in non-food stores consumer complexes, goods are combined by the principle of the unity of their consumer purpose... The introduction of such complexes into the practice of trade organizations allows:

1. To enhance the culture of customer service by:

Serving a certain category of buyers and reducing their time spent on buying;

Provision of services for the purchase of several purchases in one place, including not planned in advance related products;

Better display of goods in consumer complexes, consultations, services, etc.

2. Ensure the systematization of the assortment of goods.

3. To identify patterns in the needs and in the formation of the range of goods.

The assortment of consumer complexes can be formed according to the following features:

Age and gender groups (women's clothing, men's clothing);

Way of life, leisure activities for the population (goods for young technicians);

Solemn events (goods for wedding gifts);

Traditions and habits of buyers (knitting, sewing and handicrafts);

Seasonality of demand (winter clothing), etc.

Distinguish macro and micro complexes.

In macro complexes, sets of goods are presented that are formed from the point of view of specialization with a certain breadth of assortment and volume of turnover; as an independent department in a department store.

Micro-complexes are allocated in macro-complexes to meet the needs of consumers. They create a deep assortment of goods, increasing attention to the inclusion of all sorts of little things in the assortment.

Question 17: Inventories, their role in ensuring the smoothness of the trading process.

Answer. Wholesale speaking intermediary between production and consumer should provide rhythmic supply of goods a retail trade network that meets the demand of buyers in terms of quantity, assortment and quality. Well-formed stocks play a big role in improving the level of sales service. Work to create optimal stocks at wholesale depots include:

sizing optimal inventory;

operational accounting of stocks and control over their condition;

regulation commodity stocks.

Proper work with inventory solves a number of commercial problems associated with the formation and maintenance of the range of goods at the required level in order to meet customer demand.

The need for commercial activities in inventory management is due to the fact that demand for specific goods is dynamic is influenced by many factors, making it difficult to make the right purchasing decisions. That's why there are miscalculations in these activities, which lead to the formation of stocks above the demand or below. At surplus of goods, i.e. goods that are not in demand, slowed down or suspended their movement, the costs of the wholesale organization for their storage, lending, and costs associated with deterioration of quality increase.

Inventory shortage leads to dissatisfaction with customer demand. As a result, the volume of sales of goods is constrained, which leads to a deterioration in the economic and financial condition of the wholesale organization.

Various factors affect the size of inventory and their turnover. : consumer properties, quality of goods, price, transportation conditions, packaging and etc.

One of the main tasks of inventory management is ensuring the acceleration of the turnover of funds invested in inventory.

For a wholesale organization, a product represents the main source of income only if it is sold, if it was purchased for resale with the aim of making a profit. That's why commercial service wholesale base should conduct competent procurement work competitive products that meet consumer demand.

If range , the quantity, quality of goods does not correspond to the consumer demand, this indicates an unsatisfactory state of inventory, ineffective commercial activities.

Increase in inventory, purchase a large number of them require large financial resources ..

Inventory not in demand is not a valuable investment for a wholesale base .

Velocity of goods circulation is an quality indicator activities of a wholesale organization and characterizes the efficiency of using funds invested in inventory.

Working with inventory it is necessary to take into account the reliability of the fulfillment of supply contracts, the time for bringing the goods from the manufacturer to the end consumer, the data of the analysis of the volume and structure of the sale of both current and statistical reporting.

By investing heavily in the purchase of goods, wholesalers expose themselves to commercial risk... Justify commercial risk can only be a profitable activity. If this does not happen, the activities of the base will be unprofitable.

A slowdown in turnover leads to a decrease in turnover, which, in turn, means a decrease in the capital turnover of the wholesale base and leads to an increase in the costs of storing and maintaining inventory in a normal state. This interdependence captures the essence of the commercial work of inventory management in both wholesale and retail.

Question 18. The essence and classification of economic ties for the supply of goods

Answer. The wholesale market is a market for enterprises (organizations) that purchase goods for their subsequent resale in order to make a profit.

The wholesale market is quite capacious and is characterized by a small number of entities operating on it in comparison with the retail market. The main subjects of the wholesale market are product manufacturers, resellers and retailers. As a rule, they purchase goods in large quantities. This trade is called wholesale. It connects almost all sectors of the economy, material production and commodity circulation, includes all stages of product promotion from manufacturers to retailers.

Wholesale trade in the commodity market is an integral part of the sphere of circulation. It controls the accumulation and movement of goods in space and time, almost all commodity resources pass. It is an important lever for maneuvering commodity resources both by region and by commodity markets. Through the wholesale trade, the consumer is influenced by the manufacturer in the direction of balancing supply and demand.

In turn, the manufacturer is looking for a market for his products, selects a buyer, taking into account his capabilities and on terms that suit him.

Main commercial tasks wholesales are:

Comprehensive study of the wholesale and retail markets;

Distribution of commodity resources by region in accordance with demand, movement of goods from points of production to points of consumption;

Accumulation and storage of stocks in volumes required for uninterrupted supply of goods in a wide range of intermediary, retail organizations, end consumers;

Balancing the import and export of goods to the regions, taking into account the justified needs;

Rhythmic supply of goods;

Ensuring the reliability and stability of economic ties based on the consumer's priority;

Managing the relationship between the subjects of the wholesale market using economic levers, reducing the total costs associated with the promotion of goods from manufacturers to consumers;

provision of services to business partners.

Commercial work on the wholesale market consists of operations on wholesale purchases and wholesale of goods .. Unlike databases, retail organizations act mainly in the role of wholesale buyers. They carry out wholesale sales only in the order of small wholesale to state institutions (hospitals, kindergartens, etc.).

The legal mechanism for regulating commercial activities is an integral part of the relationship of business entities and forms their legal relationship with each other and with state bodies, as well as in the arbitration of economic disputes.

In the process of promoting goods to the market, trade performs a connecting function between production and consumers. The relationships that arise between them are called economic ties.

The concept of "economic ties" includes economic, organizational, commercial, legal, administrative and other relations that develop between buyers and sellers in the process of supplying goods.

The system of economic ties is formed on the basis of freely performed acts of purchase and sale at the initiative of the parties and the centralized distribution of certain types of goods according to quotas and for state needs.

The ability to independently regulate relations between market entities on the basis of legal norms provided for by the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus is expanding.

The Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus determines the procedure for concluding, changing, executing and terminating supply contracts.

It defines the right of the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus to approve Regulation on the supply of goods. For certain types of goods can be developed Special delivery conditions, which are approved in the manner established by the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus.

Economic ties for the supply of goods are distinguished by the structure and number of participants, validity periods, and departmental characteristics.

The structure of economic ties can be simple and complex .

Simple business connections are concluded directly between the manufacturer of goods and retail trade organizations. They are installed when purchasing many food products, especially perishable ones, as well as non-food products, which have a simple assortment and large-sized ones. Such links are called direct. The advantages of direct economic ties are that unnecessary links in the transshipment of goods are eliminated, turnover is accelerated, the effectiveness of influencing the manufacturer on issues of updating the assortment, improving the quality of goods is increasing, and the time for agreeing on the terms of delivery is reduced.

Complex structure of economic ties involves the participation of intermediaries, the number of which may vary. Such a structure of economic ties is less effective, reduces the efficiency of managing the process of bringing goods to the consumer, and reduces the effectiveness of influencing the manufacturer to produce the desired assortment. It is advisable for the supply of goods when accumulation, sub-sorting, assortment transformation at the intermediary is required.

By validity concluded contracts distinguish between one-time, short-term (up to one year) and long-term (more than a year) economic ties. If the demand for goods is systematic, preference should be given to direct long-term economic ties, they guarantee greater stability.

By departmental affiliation participants distinguish between intersystem and intrasystem economic ties.

At intersystem In economic relations, supply relationships are established between organizations of various systems, ministries, departments.

Intrasystem economic ties are contractual relations between organizations of the same system, for example, consumer cooperation. The organization of economic ties involves the implementation of the following commercial functions:

The impact of trade on the production of goods necessary for the market by industrial enterprises through its participation in the formation of production plans;

Work on the conclusion of business contracts;

Ensuring the fulfillment of contractual obligations and property liability for non-compliance;

Establishing optimal relationships between business partners;

Legal regulation of business relationships, etc.

These functions and their significance change with the development of market relations and the increase in the independence and responsibility of the parties entering

Question 19. Contractual work and its content.

Answer. General provisions and basic rules governing the system of contractual relations are established by the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus. They are based on the principles of contract law. In connection with the declaration of the Republic of Belarus as a sovereign state and the transition to the market, the organization of contractual relations has undergone a major change. The essence of these changes is that the range of business entities has expanded significantly and they have been given greater independence.

A supply agreement is a document that stipulates the rights and obligations of the parties for the supply of goods.

The subject of the contract delivery is commodity. The supplier undertakes to transfer it to the buyer for entrepreneurial activity (and not for personal consumption) within the agreed timeframe, which does not coincide with the time of the conclusion of the contract, and the buyer undertakes to pay a certain price for it.

The parties to the agreement are the supplier and the buyer, both legal entities and individuals engaged in entrepreneurial activities. The supplier can be either a manufacturer or an intermediary. The buyer can be either a wholesale intermediary or a retail trade organization.

The supply agreement creates a long-term relationship between the parties, its execution, as a rule, is carried out in parts by agreed parties and within a certain time frame.

The contract for the supply of goods is concluded in writing.

Depending on the location of the parties, contracts for the supply of goods can be divided:

On concluded between business entities of the Republic of Belarus (intra-republican);

Agreements concluded with business entities of other states ( interstate) .

They, in turn, are subdivided:

For contracts concluded on the basis of free expression of will,

Contracts for the implementation of supplies for state needs.

In the new economic conditions, the contract is a priority, because the independence of business entities is expanding, it becomes possible to respond more quickly to changes in market conditions, to better take into account the interests of the end consumer.

Preparation for the conclusion of supply contracts. The development of a draft agreement in trade organizations is entrusted to commercial and legal services. All interested services endorse the agreements. The signatures of the heads of the planning and economic, production and financial departments, as well as the chief accountant are required.

In trade practice, the use of types x contracts for the supply of goods.

A model contract is a model contract that sets out in writing uniform terms based on commercial practice. A model contract can be used in two ways.

The first way - unconditional consent of the parties to the conditions set forth in it, which should be expressed by the signing of an agreement. Second way - the use of a standard contract as a sample, which can be changed in accordance with the agreement of the parties on specific conditions.

The procedure for concluding contracts. Contracts can be concluded on the basis of:

State order for the supply of goods for state needs;

Initiatives of the parties and their mutual consent to conclude an agreement (commercial agreements).

Contractual relations based on government orders. State regulation of the economy is used in almost all countries of the world, but the forms and degree of such regulation are different. In the Republic of Belarus, one of the tools for this is an order for the supply of goods for state needs, which is widely used in other states.

All contracts, regardless of the forms and grounds for conclusion, must be documented, signed by officials and recorded on a material carrier with details that allow the signatures to be identified. These documents must reflect the consent of the parties on the mandatory terms of the contract.

The supply contracts entered into in this way enter into force. After that, mutual responsibility arises for the fulfillment of the terms of the contract. Disputes arising between the parties are considered by economic courts. The procedure for changing and terminating the supply agreement is regulated by the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus and is reflected in Regulations on the supply of goods in the Republic of Belarus. The initiating party must notify the partner about the termination or amendment of the contract within the period specified in the contract. The party that received a proposal to terminate or amend the contract must respond within 10 days. If she agrees, an additional agreement is drawn up and signed by both parties or the parties exchange letters, telegrams.

Question 20. Legal regulation of economic relations for the supply of consumer goods

Question 21. Economic relations for the supply of goods for state needs in the Republic of Belarus

Question 22. Sources of bulk purchases and suppliers of consumer goods

Answer: Source of income goods to the domestic market of the Republic of Belarus is:

1. Intra-republican sectors of the national economy producing consumer goods

2. Delivery of goods from the CIS countries

3. Centralized import procurement

4. Cooperatives, joint ventures, small businesses

5. Barter transactions carried out in a centralized manner

The suppliers of goods are specific enterprises of various sources of income. All suppliers of goods are divided by:

a) t territorially:

* local

* interregional (regional)

* republican

* foreign

b) By belonging to various economic systems

* intrasystem

* non-systemic

v) By occupation

* manufacturer suppliers

* intermediary suppliers (wholesale organizations of the republican and regional level of various product range)

Question 23. Wholesale fairs (concept, purpose, classification )

Answer: In the fair economy, two directions are determined depending on the nature of trade operations:

1. Fairs for the sale of products entered into primary circulation

2. Trade fairs for unused and surplus products

Before the fairs first kind a wide range of tasks is set:

Strengthening the active influence of market trade on the formation of production plans based on marketing research;

Introduction into production of new products that meet the requirements of world standards; simultaneous determination of products with obsolescence, economically inexpedient in operation, and, therefore, recommended for removal from production;

Work related to demonopolization in the production and circulation of products;

Obligations to ensure the priority of consumers, increase the economic impact on the supplier in case of violation of contractual obligations; an obstacle to strong-willed methods and decisions of central authorities in relation to the production and sale of products that are contrary to the economic interests of enterprises, regions, and industries.

Trade fairs second kind solve problems on the rational use of labor, financial, material, production resources.

In scale and character trade fairs carried out are subdivided into:

International fairs;

Republican fairs - combine the interests of a large number of enterprises, associations with various areas of economic activity, specialization of production. The fairs concentrate goods of a very wide profile and assortment;

Regional (regional, regional, republican) fairs function to promptly satisfy consumers with the necessary goods. Organizationally, they are more accessible to participants. The place, time and subject of the fair are determined by the relevant departments with the participation of commercial structures of enterprises and associations. The fairs work according to the schedule with the preliminary setting of the time and place. When coordinating the schedules, it is necessary to ensure that the dates of the fairs do not coincide in order to avoid their parallel work in the neighboring regions.

Specialized exhibitions can be stationary and mobile .

At the exhibitions of each industry sector, every year there are favorable opportunities to learn something, evaluate something and sell something.

If the exhibition is attended by the general public, the manufacturer has a unique chance to sell part of their products and communicate directly with a large number of end customers and find out their opinion on their quality and assortment.

To question 24 Operations performed in the wholesale of goods

Answer: commercial activity- the sphere of operational and organizational activities of trade organizations and enterprises, aimed at completing the processes of buying and selling goods to meet the demand of the population and make a profit.

Question 24. Methods of wholesale of goods from warehouses of wholesale enterprises

Answer. Wholesale Methods

Question 25. The concept, role and indicators of the economic efficiency of advertising in commercial activities

Answer. The term "advertising" widely used today comes from the Latin word reclamare - shout out (in ancient Greece and Rome, trade announcements were loudly shouted or read out in public squares and other crowded places).

By its essence, advertising is information about the consumer properties of goods and various types of services with the aim of selling them, creating demand for them. The Law "On Advertising" says that Advertising is information disseminated in any form, by any means, information about an individual or legal entity, goods, ideas and undertakings (advertising information), which is intended for a certain circle of persons and is designed to form or maintain interest in these goods, ideas and undertakings and to promote the realization of goods, ideas and undertakings. "

The most common area of ​​advertising is trade advertising, the object of which is goods, trade enterprises, services provided by these enterprises. By its essence trade advertisement- purposeful dissemination of information about the consumer properties of goods and various types of services accompanying the sale of these goods in order to attract the attention of consumers to them in order to create demand for these goods and services and increase their sales.

They differ from ordinary informational advertising messages in that they perform the function of an admonishing influence on a person in order to induce him to purchase certain goods (services). Advertising forms part of marketing, the task of which is to ensure the smooth sale of the manufactured products.

Advertising must accurately and truthfully inform the consumer about the quality, properties, range, rules of use (operation) and consumption of goods, as well as provide other information about goods and services. It is unacceptable to use exaggerated data on the quality of goods in advertising messages, or, moreover, to deceive consumers, pass off a fake product as a full-fledged one, influence other negative motivations on a person's base inclinations. Advertising design must meet modern aesthetic requirements, and the cost of organizing it must not exceed the reasonable (rational) size.

Advertising, on the one hand, conveys to consumers various information necessary for the purchase and use of goods, on the other hand, combining its informational content with persuasiveness and suggestibility, it has an emotional and mental impact on a person.

In addition, trade advertising should improve the quality of the shopping experience for customers. With the help of advertising, buyers find the products they need faster, purchase them with the greatest convenience and the least time.

It is equally important to inform the population about individual trade enterprises, the services they offer, opening hours, sales methods, and the specifics of their activities.

Truthfulness- compliance of information about goods, their quality, merits and advantages of reality

Concreteness is expressed in convincing arguments and digital data used in the text of the advertising message, respectively, in the advertising graphics, compliance with this principle excludes unjustified formalism and methods that are incomprehensible to a wide range of advertising users

Purposefulness advertising means that its starting point is the advertised goods and market conditions, and its object is the consumer. Compliance with this principle prevents irrational spending of funds, allows you to assess the effectiveness of the use of tog: or other means of advertising, its impact on increasing the turnover of a trading enterprise, as well as its emotional and psychological impact.

In modern conditions, a wide variety of advertising media are used, among which it is necessary, first of all, to highlight print advertising, radio and television advertising, advertising in the press, audiovisual, outdoor, display and exhibition advertising and its other types.

Determination of economic efficiency

Determination of psychological effectiveness (assessment of the consumer's response to

complex of communications).

Cost effectiveness is determined by measuring the impact of advertising on sales, profits, and profitability.

Additional turnover under the influence of advertising is determined by the formula:

T d = (T 2 - T 1) D, where:

P = T d P / 100 - Z, where

Р - profitability of sales;

Profitability calculated by the formula:

The main means of internal advertising of the store is the interior of the sales area; advertising layout and display of goods inside the trade enterprise; advertising signs, posters and posters, as well as promotional activities such as radio advertisements in a store, tasting new products, usually food, etc.

Advertising purposes are not only for window displays, but also for an in-store exhibition of goods. The placement of goods inside the store should be convenient for inspection and selection, increase the independence of buyers, help them make purchases with the least amount of time. In stores that use the traditional selling method, the in-store exhibition is held on the wall and counter equipment, which forms the basis of the seller's workplaces. In self-service stores, the sales area should be a merchandise exhibition that guides shoppers by helping them find the section they want and “shop around”. In modern self-service stores (supermarkets, supermarkets), the building facade is often a solid glass wall through which the entire sales area is clearly visible. Therefore, in these stores, it is necessary to arrange in-store exhibitions of goods that are visible through the glazed facade, or to install multi-tiered double-sided display racks close to the glazed facade. On one side of such a display rack facing the sales area, buyers select goods.

In self-service, the first place is given to decorative and artistic design of shop windows and a shop floor, and advertising information for visitors. This information concerns the location of departments, sections and the placement of goods in the trading floor, indicating the most rational patterns for the flow of buyers, the procedure for selecting payment for goods.

The means of advertising goods in the store also include print advertising - ads and articles in newspapers and magazines, as well as posters, leaflets, brochures, catalogs, sales letters, posters and leaflets, memos and inserts, product labels, labels, advertising texts on packaging materials and others. This type of advertising is the main share in the advertising of goods. With the help of print advertising, you can inform the population about a wide variety of issues of purchase, use, consumer properties of goods sold by the store.

- Radio advertisements - it is a prompt and massive means of communication and psychological impact on customers both inside the store and outside the store. In terms of the forms of transmission, radio advertising is very diverse. Radio advertising uses genres such as dialogues, reports, announcements, often accompanied by music.

- Demonstration advertising involves a show (demonstration) of new models of ready-made clothes, hats, shoes, timed to the beginning of the relevant season; demonstration of technically complex products in operation and consultation on the rules for their use; tasting new, little-known food products, etc.

Question 27. The essence and purpose of commercial activities to stimulate sales

Answer... Sales promotion is a set of techniques used throughout the entire life cycle of a product in relation to three market participants (consumer, wholesaler, seller) in order to increase sales in the short term, as well as increase the number of new customers.

Depending on the destination incentives can be:

non-price;

price .

The setting of sales promotion goals is focused on the main goals of the retail organization's business strategy. Therefore, along with strategic goals, specific and one-time ones can be implemented.

The management, and therefore the setting of incentive targets, is carried out by the managers of the commercial department, taking into account the opinions of managers of sales areas and sales representatives of manufacturing enterprises.

Non-price incentives

Under non-price means of incentives understand the use of commercial, technological, organizational and economic opportunities aimed at increasing sales, but not associated with changes in the price of goods.

Among non-price incentives, a special role belongs to oral consultation and seller's advertisement .

An effective means of non-price incentives is also rational placement and efficient display of goods. The main task of the sales floor manager is the most profitable presentation of the entire assortment and each product separately.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of "placement" and "display" of goods in the trading floor.

Placement of goods assumes the distribution of the assortment over the entire area of ​​the trading floor, taking into account the frequency of demand, the complexity of the acquisition, interchangeability, dimensions and weight of goods, specific properties of the goods.

Under display of goods it is necessary to understand certain methods of stacking and displaying goods on the display area of ​​the trading floor. For each product, the most appropriate way of displaying it must be determined.

The shops use vertical, horizontal, combined systems of displaying goods and laying out "in bulk".

Layout in self-service stores with principles in mind merchandising

Layout for self-service stores plays a special role, since it is the layout that should influence the purchase decision.

In self-service stores, the following types of display are distinguished:

The main one is the display on the shelves of island and wall slides;

Layout of products on trays;

Special layout.

The sales floor manager must know and ensure the implementation of the following principles of placement and display of goods, based on knowledge of the psychology of the buyer and merchandising:

1. Inexpensive ahead. Inexpensive goods create a favorable impression of the price level of the store, so they are placed at the beginning of the trading floor.

2. "The striped principle". Products with low prices and products with high profitability alternate in the course of the movement of the buyer in the trading floor. But the goods that provide the greatest profit should not be placed at the end of the route, otherwise, upon reaching it, the buyer will already have a full basket, and the wallet will be empty.

3. "The principle of two fingers." The height of the shelf must correspond to the product being sold. It is believed that if you can stick two fingers between the top edge of the product and the next shelf, you need to change the distance between the shelves.

4. Shelf extensions. The use of plywood, wire, metal shelf extensions, wire baskets can increase the efficiency of shelving.

5. "Review and availability". The goods must be laid out with the front of the packaging towards the buyer.

6. 6."Cleanliness and constant restocking."

7."Shelf fullness". The maximum turnover in self-service stores is possible only when the shelves are fully filled. If the main product is sold out, you can fill the empty shelves with an impulsive product.

World experience. The human eye can perceive a product if at least 3-5 identical packs (packages) are presented nearby. Whatever the width of the shelf, the product should be relatively free.

Layout of products on trays - a popular way of placing goods both on the shelves (if they can accommodate a lot of front row goods) and in mass displays.

The package is a tray with a product wrapped in a stretchable thin film and has the following characteristics:

Special layout. The main display on the slides creates the necessary background for a special display of goods in the sales area (takes about 5% of all store sales). It serves as the primary means of drawing the attention of buyers to the sale of special, from a commercial point of view, goods.

Mass calculations used mainly for consumer goods and goods in high demand.

Sales Promotion Pricing

All types of incentives based on direct or indirect, immediate or delayed sales price reductions are related to price.

A fairly common price incentive is selling at discount prices.

Retail professionals often highlight not only the advantages but also the commercial disadvantages of selling at discount prices. Generalization of different points of view made it possible to highlight the following advantages and disadvantages.

Question 28. The system of indicators characterizing the effectiveness of commercial activities.

Answer. It is very difficult to assess and analyze the activities of a trading enterprise. The difficulty lies in the fact that any commercial organization, regardless of its size, field of activity, profitability or loss-making, is a complex system that interacts with the market environment. Therefore, there is hardly a single indicator that could comprehensively reflect all aspects of the commercial activity of the enterprise. Even profit cannot be such an indicator.

For a comprehensive assessment of the effectiveness of commercial activities, it is necessary system of indicators. These indicators are: (profit will come first)

Profit (from sales and balance sheet) - is the most important indicator of the effectiveness of the commercial activities of a trading enterprise. It reflects the results of the entire trading activity of the enterprise - the volume of products sold, its composition and assortment structure, labor productivity, the level of costs, the presence of non-productive costs and losses, etc.

The volume of trade and the rate of its growth;

Inventories (in amount and days) and compliance with their standards;

Turnover (in days and turnovers) - the time during which the goods are sold;

Profitability (the ratio of the amount of profit to the turnover);

The level of distribution costs (the ratio of the amount of distribution costs to the turnover);

Financial stability ratio (the ratio of own and borrowed funds);

Current liquidity ratio (the ratio of current assets to the amount of current short-term liabilities, accounts payable and loans);

Coefficient of provision with own circulating assets (the ratio of SOS to the same circulating assets).

Question 29 .. Concept, essence, subject and subject of leasing

Answer. The term "leasing" comes from the English verb to 1ease- rent, lease. The history of leasing relations dates back to the XX century. BC e., as evidenced by archaeological excavations in the ancient state of Sumer, and not, as is commonly believed, in the last century in America. However, the term "leasing" came into use in 1877, when the Bell Telephone Company decided not to sell its telephones, but to rent them out. The first independent leasing company, United States Leasing Corporation, was established in San Francisco (USA) in 1952.

"Leasing- the type of investment activity for the acquisition of property and its transfer on the basis of a lease agreement to individuals or legal entities for a specified fee, for a specified period and under certain conditions stipulated by the agreement, with the right to purchase the property by the lessee. "In addition, there is a definition given by the group World Bank: "Leasing is a contractual relationship between two parties that allows one party (the lessee) to use property owned by the other party (the lessor) in exchange for agreed periodic payments. "

From an economic standpoint the property is leased for a certain period (lease term) with the condition of its return, for which the owner receives a fee (lease payments). Thus, all the conditions of credit relations are met: urgency, repayment and payment, and, therefore, leasing can be viewed as a specific way of lending.

The Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus (Art. 636) establishes the concept of a financial lease agreement: "Under a financial lease agreement (lease agreement), the lessor undertakes to acquire the specified property from a certain seller and provide the tenant with this property for a fee. in temporary possession and use for business purposes ".

According to the current legislation (article 637 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus) subject of leasing"there can be any non-consumable things used for entrepreneurial activity, except for land plots and other natural objects."

The obligation to use the property leased only for entrepreneurial activity predetermines that the subject of leasing can be both movable and immovable property, which is an object of fixed assets.

Real estate objects include buildings and structures for industrial purposes.

Leasing entities. The Federal Law of the Russian Federation "On Leasing" defines three subjects of leasing: the lessor, the lessee, and the seller.

Depending on the period of use of the property acquired under the contract, distinguish financial and operational leasing .

financial leasing- a type of leasing in which the lessor undertakes to acquire the property specified by the lessee from a specific seller and transfer this property to the lessee as a leased asset for a specified fee, for a specified period and under specified conditions for temporary possession and use

Operational leasing- a type of leasing in which the lessor purchases property at its own risk and peril and transfers it to the lessee as a leased asset for a specified fee, for a specified period and under specified conditions for temporary possession and use

Mixed leasing is a leasing that contains elements of financial and operational leasing

Question 30. The essence of franchising and its role in the development of small business

Answer. The word "franchising" comes from the French " franchise ", which means "benefit, privilege, exemption from tax, contribution". Subsequently, this word was fixed in the English-speaking states. In the Civil Code of the Russian Federation (Art. 1027) this term was called "commercial concession" and "commercial concession agreement.

By its essence franchising is a system of relationships, which consists in the paid transfer by one party (of a company, which, as a rule, has a pronounced image and a high reputation in the market of goods and services) to the other party (a company or an individual private entrepreneur) of its means of individualization of the goods produced, the work performed or the services provided ( trademark or service mark, corporate identity), business technology and other commercial information, the use of which by the other party will contribute to the growth and reliable consolidation in the market of goods and services.

At the same time, the transferring party undertakes to assist in the establishment of the business, to provide technical and consulting assistance.

Franchising dates back to the early 1800s, a so-called linked house system used by British brewers. In 1860, the Singer factory, specializing in the production of sewing machines, operated according to a scheme very close to franchising.

The formula developed in 1886 "Sosa-Co1a"and its sale in 1900 led to a powerful impetus in the development of franchising; the system began to spread rapidly under the brand name" Sosa-Co1a "known to all until now. The brothers managed to achieve the greatest success in the development of this system in the 50s of the last century Mac Donald... At present, the McDonald's franchise system numbers about 20 thousand enterprises in different countries of the world.

In Belarus, an example of franchising is McDonald's.

Stabilization and further revitalization of the Russian economy are directly related to solving the problems of small business development. The role of this sector of the economy has been seriously rethought in recent decades. Now it is seen as a necessary condition for the self-development and stability of its economic system. For example, there are about 20 million small firms in the United States, and more than 6.5 million in Japan.

Franchising has proven to be highly effective and viable in the mid-70s economic downturn. The position of franchising companies has been all the more solid since the beginning of the 1980s, when during the presidency of R. Reagan, the United States experienced economic growth. The American literature cited the following statistics: in those years in the United States, one franchise enterprise was opened every 6.5 minutes.

With a great deal of domestic experience, American franchising moved overseas to sprout in other markets. Many companies have sold their franchises in other countries, and some of them are rapidly expanding their international network. Currently, more than 350 American firms and their franchisees own more than 32,000 sales establishments in other countries.

The rapid development of franchising is observed in Canada, Western Europe, Japan, the states of the Pacific region, Australia, and the countries of the Caribbean region. Franchisers from other countries are also looking closely at the Russian market. Apparently, international franchising will develop at an even faster pace in the near future. Franchisers are looking for potential franchisees in foreign countries, and many individuals and firms are actively looking for franchisors from other countries in order to acquire their license and rights and, with their financial support, make their own profitable business on their production and service technologies.

The essence and content of commercial activity in the market of goods and services Issues Commercial activity, its objectives and development trends. Objects and subjects of commercial activity. The main functions and principles of commercial activities. The term commerce is closer to the third concept of trade in activities associated with the implementation of the purchase and sale.

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