The indirect method of international trade and its role. Styles and methods of trading. Indicators of international trade

By methods of trade, foreign trade operations are divided into:

Indirect;

Adversarial transactions.

Indirect trading methods include the following types of intermediary trading:

Commission operations;

Trading companies and houses;

Agency operations;

Brokerage.

Adversarial transactions on the technique of conclusion provide for the following procedures:

Commodity exchanges;

Auctions;

International competitive bidding (tenders).

Direct trading method (direct selling method) involves the establishment of direct, direct links between the manufacturer and the consumer of goods (or services), bypassing any intermediary links. In this case, the exporter himself finds a market for his product and enters it directly, without intermediaries. As a rule, this happens in cases where the number of consumers and suppliers is limited, and the demand for goods is not massive.

In international practice, the direct sales method is used:

During the construction of a large industrial facility, when the contractors are known and the customer himself is able to establish contact with one of them;

Implementation of industrial cooperation between two or more enterprises for the joint production of finished products;

Sale of industrial raw materials in large quantities on the basis of long-term contracts (supply of wool, oil, gas, etc.);

Purchase of large consignments of agricultural raw materials directly from manufacturing firms;

Sale of typical large-scale equipment through its own sales network (export sales services directly at the enterprises, as well as branches, subsidiaries in the buyer's country).

Benefits of the direct trading method:

Closer ties with foreign consumers, direct contact with whom contributes to better understanding in matters related to the merits of the transaction;

The ability to better and more efficiently study the market, and, consequently, the ability to quickly adapt production to changing conditions.

Indirect trading methods... The indirect method of sales involves the implementation of commercial activities through an intermediary. It is used in cases when:

The product is in massive demand, that is, there are many consumers and the manufacturer is not able to reach the optimal buyer on his own;

The product is at the final stage of its life cycle and the assistance of a national intermediary is needed for its implementation;

The market for this product is characterized by serious foreign trade restrictions or national characteristics, and it is also not possible to enter it without national intermediary firms.

Advantages of the indirect trading method:

The possibility of selling goods in more short time and more favorable terms what could be done by the manufacturer of the goods;

Obtaining, through a local intermediary, the necessary information about the state and prospects of the market;

Organization of after-sales Maintenance goods at a higher quality and operational level (for the same reasons);

Obtaining additional benefits and increasing the competitiveness of the goods sold by attracting funds and knowledge of the intermediary.

Disadvantages of the indirect method:

Disruption of feedback between producer and consumer due to the presence of an intermediary;

Strong dependence of the seller's image in the sales market on the behavior of the intermediary.

Trading and intermediary firms act in order to generate profits, the sources of which can be:

Remuneration for the services provided to promote goods to foreign markets (fixed amount of remuneration, commission, accrual of interest on export prices, reimbursement of expenses based on supporting documents and other types);

Margin is the difference between the prices of purchasing goods from exporters and the prices at which these goods are sold to buyers.

Depending on the nature of the legal relationship between the principal (exporter or importer) and the reseller in the indirect trading method, several backbone factors classifications of trade and intermediary operations:

On whose behalf the intermediary acts (on his own behalf or on behalf of the principal), that is, for whom, as a result of the intermediary's operations, legal consequences arise: for himself or for the principal he serves;

At whose expense the intermediary acts (at his own expense or at the expense of the principal), that is, to whose account the expenses or incomes arising as a result of the intermediary's operations are related: to the account of the intermediary himself or to the account of the principal he serves.

Classifying trade and intermediary operations from the point of view of these system-forming factors, the following are distinguished: views:

The intermediary acts on his own behalf, but at someone else's expense - commission transactions performed by commission firms;

The intermediary acts on his own behalf and at his own expense - dealer operations or resale operations carried out by trading (dealer) firms - sales intermediaries;

The intermediary acts on someone else's behalf and at someone else's expense - agency operations performed by sales agents;

The mediator acts neither on his own behalf, nor on behalf of someone else, nor at his own expense, nor at someone else's expense - brokerage carried out by brokerage firms - simple intermediaries.

Commission operations... Commission operations are performed by commission export and import firms under a commission agreement (consignment). By the nature of the relationship with the represented party, commission export firms can act as a representative of the seller, a representative of a buyer or a confirmation house (an export commission company that assumes the risk of loans provided to buyers on behalf of the exporting manufacturer).

By the parties to the commission operation are the consignor and commission agent. The agent does not buy goods, but only makes transactions at his expense. Thus, the commission agent is an intermediary only on the part of the committent. For a third party, with whom a transaction is concluded on behalf of the principal, the commission agent is a party to the purchase and sale agreement.

The commission agreement usually stipulates the procedure for determining the price at which the commission agent sells the consignor's goods (minimum and maximum), the powers and functions of the parties, as well as the obligations of commission agents to provide a number additional services associated, for example, with marketing research, providing economic information, conducting joint promotions, maintenance organization, etc.

Since the commission agents are responsible for the safety of the consignor's goods at their disposal, they must insure the goods in favor of the consignor. The commission agent is not responsible for the fulfillment by the principal of payment obligations (unless such liability is provided for in commission agreements).

The commission agent receives a commission for his intermediary services. In practice, industrial developed countries it ranges from 3.5 to 10%.

A type of commission agreement is a contract consignment... Under this agreement, suppliers (exporters) deliver goods to the warehouses of intermediaries (consignees), who sell them to buyers.

Consignment agreements establish terms for the sale of goods, after which unsold goods are returned to consignors or are redeemed by consignees.

A distinctive feature of consignment is that goods are sold at prices set by consignors.

The consignment agreement is not specifically regulated by Russian civil law, therefore, the rules of the commission agreement apply to such legal relations.

Dealer operations... Dealer operations are carried out by numerous sales intermediaries - trading companies under a distribution agreement. Such firms include trading houses (large firms, often TNCs of a conglomerate type, which include, in addition to a powerful foreign trade company, manufacturing, banking, insurance, transport, retail and wholesale and other firms), export-import companies, retail and wholesale trade, distributors, stockists (a company of the importing country that carries out export-import operations on the basis of a consignment agreement, has its own warehouses, buys and sells goods on its own behalf and at its own expense).

Trading firms and houses are engaged in the resale of goods: they buy or sell goods on their own behalf and at their own expense. Trading companies or houses for some time become the owners of the goods and have the right to sell them at their discretion: at any time, in any market and at any price.

Another option for establishing contractual relations with agents promoting the promotion of the exporter's goods to foreign markets is distribution agreement(Distributorship Agreement) - sales agreement or distribution agreement. Under such an agreement, the exporter (manufacturer) grants the distributor (agent, importer) an exclusive (exclusive), monopoly or preemptive right to place and sell agreed goods (contractual goods) in a certain territory (contractual territory), and the distributor (agent, importer) accepts on the obligation to purchase the contractual goods exclusively from the exporter with whom the agreement is concluded. When granting an agent an exclusive right, the principal undertakes not to sell the goods on the territory other than that agent. If the contract is concluded with a monopoly agent, the principal reserves the right to sell goods directly in the contract territory and undertakes not to enter into agreements with other agents or distributors. When granting a preemptive right to an agent, the principal first of all offers the contractual goods in the contractual territory to the distributor with whom such an agreement has been concluded; if this distributor, for whatever reason, does not undertake the sale and placement of such goods, the principal can independently offer them to buyers on the contractual territory.

The distribution agreement is intended for the relationship of the parties in international commercial relations, when distributors act as buyers - wholesalers and importers - and organize the placement of goods on the contractual territory (this is their difference from dealers who sell goods at the level retail). The exporter and the distributor act as parties to the distribution agreement and independent contracts for the international sale of goods concluded in its execution.

Distributor- an economically and legally independent agent who buys goods for resale on his own behalf and at his own expense, gets the opportunity to freely build its relations with internal consumers, create a sales network in cooperation with many exporters, organize pre-sale advertising and after-sales service at the lowest cost and form profit from the difference in purchase and resale prices. In this regard, the distributor only indirectly mediates between the exporter and consumers, acting in the economic interests of the exporter to promote the product to the market.

Despite its wide distribution, the distribution agreement is not specifically regulated either by Russian civil law or by the laws of most other countries. The rules aimed at protecting the distributor are contained in the legislation of Belgium, Lebanon, a number of countries in Central America and the Middle East. For example, in Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Yemen and some other countries of the Middle East, this type of activity is only allowed to citizens of these countries, in other words, without a local agent, market penetration is impossible. In some countries, the protection of distributors is carried out by judicial practice by applying to them, by analogy, the rules of the agency agreement, according to which the distributor acts as a commercial agent. However, we have to admit the absence of uniform rules for agreements of this type, therefore, the recommendations of the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) for standard distribution contracts are important to regulate the relationship between the parties to the corresponding contractual relationship.

The ICC International Distribution Agreement Guidelines highlight the following specific traits of this agreement:

As a reseller, the distributor promotes or organizes sales in the territory assigned to him;

The manufacturer loses a privileged position in the territory of the distributor, who is often granted exclusive marketing rights;

Relationships are established for an agreed period; it is at the heart of a collaboration that cannot be episodic;

In the course of such a relationship, a close relationship of trust develops between the parties. The sale of finished products is usually accompanied by restriction of the distributor's freedom of action, in particular, the obligation to refrain from competition;

Almost always, a distributor sells goods under the appropriate trademarks, brand names and other designations, using instructions for use, catalogs, price lists and other materials.

A typical distribution contract highlights the need to agree on an annual sales volume and a guaranteed minimum sales for the coming year, and it is recommended to provide for the consequences of not reaching such sales in the relevant year.

It is advisable to provide for prescriptions regarding the possibility of appointing sub-distributors or dealers in the contractual territory.

Agency operations... Under an agency agreement (agency agreement), one party (agent) undertakes, for a fee, to perform legal and other actions on behalf of the other party (principal) on its own behalf, but at the expense of the principal or on behalf and at the expense of the principal.

Under a transaction made by an agent with a third party on his own behalf and at the expense of the principal, the agent acquires the rights and becomes obligated, even if the principal was named in the transaction or entered into direct relations with the third party to execute the transaction. Under a transaction made by an agent with a third party on behalf of and at the expense of the principal, the rights and obligations arise directly from the principal (clause 1 of article 1005 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

Agency service is a combination of commission and commission agreements. From the meaning of Art. 1011 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, which directly indicates that the rules provided for by Ch. 49 "Assignment" or Ch. 51 "Commission", it follows that the agency agreement is designed to combine and expand the possibilities of contracts of commission and commission.

Differences between contracts of commission, commission and agency is as follows:

Firstly, the agent under the contract of order acts only on behalf of the other party (the principal), the commission agent - only on his own behalf, and the agent can act both on behalf of the principal and on his own behalf.

Secondly, an agency agreement covers a wider range of relations than contracts of assignment and commission. If the commission agent concludes only transactions, the attorney can perform other legal actions, then the agent is also entitled to perform actions of a factual nature (actions that do not create legal relations between the principal and third parties). For example, an agent can conduct advertising campaigns, inform the principal about the conjuncture of commodity markets, etc.

Third, relations under an agency agreement are usually of a continuing nature and may be limited to the contractual territory.

A type of agency agreement is a contract commercial concession or franchising... Under this agreement, one party (rightholder) undertakes to provide the other party (user) for a fee, for a period or without specifying a period, the right to use entrepreneurial activity the user is a complex of exclusive rights belonging to the rightholder, including the right to a trademark, service mark, as well as rights to other objects of exclusive rights provided for by the contract, in particular to a commercial designation, a secret of production (know-how) (clause 1 of article 1027 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation) ...

The subject of this agreement is the use of a set of exclusive rights, business reputation and commercial experience of the copyright holder in the agreed amount, with or without indication of the contractual territory. Remuneration under a commercial concession agreement can be paid by the user to the rightholder in the form of fixed one-time or periodic payments, deductions from proceeds, a markup on the wholesale price of goods transferred by the rightholder for resale, or in another form stipulated by the agreement (Article 1030 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

Brokerage Is an establishment through an intermediary - a broker ( broker Is a person who promotes the sale or purchase of goods, but is not considered a party to the contract either from the position of the seller, or from the position of the buyer) of the contact between the seller and the buyer.

The role of the broker is to bring the parties together, who take on the obligations of the transaction concluded with the participation of the broker. Unlike an agent, a broker is not anyone's representative and does not have a contractual relationship with any of the parties. It operates on the basis of individual orders. He is empowered to select a counterparty for each specific transaction, and he is obliged to strictly follow the client's instructions on the quantity, quality and price of the goods.

Commodity exchanges... A commodity exchange is the most developed form of a regularly functioning wholesale market goods sold by standards and samples. Essentially, commodity exchanges are commercial intermediaries who do not themselves participate in transactions, but facilitate their conclusion.

The following main functions commodity exchange:

Provision of intermediary services for the conclusion of trade transactions and organization of trading (selection of qualified personnel, drawing up a trading plan);

Preparation of exchange contracts;

Ordering of wholesale trade, regulation of trade operations and placement of trade disputes, i.e. exchange arbitration;

Information function: collection and publication of information on prices and factors that affect prices (state of production, yield forecasts, proposed agreements between countries in the economic sphere);

Pricing: by matching supply and demand;

Quotation of prices - a method of registering exchange prices according to exchange rules with their subsequent publication;

Hedging - insurance against risks possible change prices.

Exchanges can be:

Universal, on which operations are carried out on a wide range of dissimilar goods;

Specialized, which deals with a specific product.

Exchange commodities are traditionally:

Non-ferrous metals;

Agricultural commodities and manufactured goods such as grain, coffee, sugar, cotton, natural rubber, natural silk and etc.

According to the field of activity and role in world trade, exchanges are divided into:

International;

National.

International exchanges serve specific global trading markets, and representatives of the business community participate in exchange operations different countries... The international character of exchanges is ensured by the corresponding currency, trade and tax regimes of the countries where they are located.

The conclusion of transactions takes place on the basis of standard exchange contracts, which strictly regulate the quality and delivery time. The seller on the exchange does not sell the goods to the buyer, but a document confirming the ownership of the goods. Such a document is warehouse certificate (warrant), certifying the delivery by the seller of the goods to the exchange warehouse. Against such a document, the buyer can receive the goods from the exchange warehouse.

The peculiarity of exchange transactions is that here transactions are concluded for standard consignments of goods that have certain qualities for each type and grade. This makes it possible to carry out transactions on the exchange not only without inspecting the goods, but also for goods that do not yet exist at this time.

In this regard, a distinction is made between:

Exchange transactions for real goods;

Derivatives (futures transactions).

Transactions for real goods can be:

Immediate delivery (cash or spot). In this case, the goods are in the warehouse of the exchange and are transferred to the buyer within 1 to 15 days after the conclusion of the transaction;

For real goods with future delivery. Such transactions are called term (forward) transactions. In a forward transaction, the delivery of goods is carried out at the time specified in the contract and at the price fixed on the day of the conclusion of the contract.

Derivatives (futures) transactions do not imply obligations to deliver or accept real goods, but only involve the purchase and sale of rights to the goods. A futures contract cannot be simply canceled (liquidated); if it is concluded, then it can be liquidated:

Or by concluding an opposite transaction for an equal amount of goods;

Or by the delivery of the agreed goods within the time period stipulated in the contract.

In urgent transactions, the buyer does not expect to receive the purchased material. The result of such transactions is not the transfer of real goods, but the payment or receipt of the difference between the price of the contract on the day of its conclusion and the price on the day of execution.

Conclusion of a transaction on the exchange, their participants can pursue the following goals:

Buying and selling real goods;

Carrying out speculative transactions;

Hedging.

Transactions for the purchase and sale of real goods are committed by manufacturers in order to sell the goods they produce, by consumers in order to provide themselves with the necessary goods (mainly raw materials for further processing), by traders in order to further resell the goods to consumers. These transactions are carried out both for cash goods and for a term.

Speculative operations are made on the exchange in order to obtain profit from the sale and purchase of exchange contracts, which may arise for one of the parties (the seller or the buyer) as a result of the difference between the price of the exchange contract on the day of its conclusion and the price on the day of its execution with a favorable change for one of the parties prices.

The following methods of speculative stock market play:

A game to raise or lower prices in the future. In this case, contracts are bought with the aim of selling them in the future at a higher price or sold with the expectation of a subsequent price reduction. Such transactions are carried out both with real goods and with futures contracts. Speculative transactions in futures contracts are more widespread. Speculators who play bulls on the futures exchange are called bulls, and bearish.

Game on the difference in prices (for cash goods and for a period in operations with real goods). In this situation, two cases are possible:

- in the first, prices in the real market are higher than in the derivatives market (the situation “ backwardation"). A similar situation occurs when there is a reduction in the supply of available goods, a decrease in the flow of goods to the exchange warehouse (i.e., goods are in short supply), and buyers need the goods for current production and they are ready to pay a higher price to receive goods with immediate shipment. Then, as a result of the increase in demand for cash goods over supply, the price rises. The backwardation situation also arises when manufacturers, in order to raise prices, abstain from supplying goods or buy goods on the stock exchange. In a backwardation situation, the seller who has the item on hand, which he sells for immediate delivery, wins. At the same time, he buys the same number of contracts for a period (for example, with delivery in 2 months);

- in the second, prices on the real market are lower than on the forward market (the situation “ contango" or " forwarding"). Such a situation is when the supply of available goods in the stock exchange's warehouses increases, and the overhead costs associated with its storage are high. Then the seller seeks to sell the product and puts pressure on the price level of the item on hand. It is also possible to raise prices with delivery on time in cases where there is reason to believe that future supplies will decrease. In such a situation, speculators buy cash goods and sell them for a period if the difference in prices is greater than the cost of overhead costs.

Usually, futures transactions are used to hedging, i.e., to insure financial risks against possible losses in the event of changes in market prices when concluding transactions for real goods.

The essence of this operation is that the firm, selling real goods on the exchange or outside it with delivery in the future, wishing to use the price level existing at the time of the transaction, simultaneously performs the reverse operation on the futures exchange, i.e., buys futures contracts for that the same period and for the same quantity of goods. After the delivery (or acceptance) of the goods under the transaction with the real goods, the sale or redemption of futures contracts is carried out.

The insurance principle here is based on the fact that if in a transaction one party loses as a seller of real goods, then it wins as a buyer of futures for the same amount of goods, and vice versa. Therefore, the buyer of the real good hedges with the sale, and the seller of the real good hedges with the purchase.

Auction trade... Auctions are a sequential sale of real goods with strictly individual properties on the basis of a competition.

International commodity auctions- these are specially organized markets that periodically operate in certain places, where through public auctions at a predetermined time and in a specially designated place, goods previously inspected by the buyer are sold, which become the property of the buyer who offered the highest price.

Auctions are held at permanent or pre-designated locations at traditional or pre-designated times. Auction trade is used to sell a relatively limited list of goods, mainly of animal and vegetable origin (furs, furs, tea, tobacco, wool, spices, etc.).

Auction trade is convenient for suppliers and buyers because it reduces distribution costs and ensures the sale of goods at prices close to world prices, since it concentrates large amounts of goods and attracts many competing buyers.

International auctions usually operate in large shopping centers and ports, in particular in London, New York, Amsterdam.

The procedure for holding auctions includes four stages:

Preparation of the auction;

Inspection of goods;

Auction bargaining;

Registration and execution of the auction transaction.

Preparation of the auction starts 2–3 months before the upcoming auction and assumes the following:

The owner, who wants to sell his goods at the auction, delivers it to the warehouse of the auction company;

Specialists of the auction commission carry out the necessary sorting and selection of goods according to the possible homogeneous qualitative characteristics;

The sorted goods are divided into lots, which are called in lots;

Each lot is assigned a number, under which it is entered into the catalog of this auction, indicating the variety and number of units of goods in this lot. Several lots with the same quality indicators form the so-called thong... A characteristic sample is selected from each lot or string and displayed in a special inspection room.

The catalog informs about the date of the opening of the auction and its duration, the place of the auction, the time set for inspection of the goods, the time of the auction, the last day of payment for the purchased goods. Potential buyers are notified about the place and time of the auction, the quantity and range of goods offered at the auction.

Inspection of goods buyers usually starts a week or 10 days before the opening of the auction, it is produced in special rooms where samples of goods selected from each lot are placed. Samples must fully reflect all the features of the goods in the lot they represent. The organizers of the auction are responsible for this. Customers can purchase samples of the batches they like during inspection for additional quality checks.

Auction bargaining opens on a predetermined day and hour and is usually held in a special auction room. The auction technique is as follows:

The auctioneer announces the number of the next lot of the lot offered for sale and names the original selling price;

If none of the buyers gives him a sign of his agreement to buy the goods, he reduces the price until one of the buyers expresses his desire to buy it;

If one or more buyers give a sign that they want to buy this lot, the auctioneer raises the price;

If, after the auctioneer's three questions, "Who is more?" if a new proposal to increase the price does not follow, then the bargaining for this batch is over, and it is considered bought by the buyer who offered the highest price;

In the event of a disagreement, the administration of the auction retains the right to resell any lot;

The administration of the auction has the right to withdraw any lot from the auction until it is sold, without explaining the reasons;

After all lots have been sold, the unsold lots can be put up for sale again.

The pace of the auction is very high and requires maximum attention and quick response from buyers and auctioneers. On average, it takes less than 50 seconds to sell one lot. In some countries, auctions exclusively use the price reduction method. This method was named “ Dutch auction»(Dutch auction), as it is widely used in this country. Its essence lies in the fact that at first the auctioneer sets the maximum price, which is displayed on the board installed in the auction room. If none of the buyers expresses a desire to purchase the lot at this price, then the auctioneer begins to reduce the price. The buyer of the goods is the one who is the first to press the button in front of him, which stops the price change on the display. After that, the number under which this buyer is registered with the organizers of the auction lights up on the board. He is considered the buyer of this lot. This way of holding an auction significantly speeds up the rate of auction bargaining and makes it possible to sell up to 600 lots per hour.

Registration and execution of an auction transaction... The payment for the goods sold at the auction is usually made in installments: 30-35% is paid upon signing the contract, and the rest of the amount - upon receipt of the goods or after shipment, but no later than the specified deadline. The timing of the export of goods from the auction warehouse depends on the type of goods. Perishable goods (flowers, vegetables, fish) are exported immediately after the execution of the contract, other goods - depending on the conditions of the auction trade.

Depending on the nature of the activity firms engaged in auction trading can be roughly divided into three groups:

Specialized firms;

Brokerage and commission firms;

Auction firms owned by cooperatives or farmers' unions.

Specialized firms are engaged in the organization of auctions and the sale of auction goods at them, both at their own expense and on a commission basis. Firms take on all the functions of preparing and holding auctions, often they give sellers loans for their goods, transferred to the auction firm for sale at auction.

Brokerage and commission firms became widespread in the trade of furs, wool, tea, tobacco, etc. They usually organize auctions and sell them on a commission basis on behalf of their clients. The brokerage firm conducting the auctions can act as both a representative of the seller and the buyer. At the same time, she receives a commission from both the seller and the buyer.

Auction firms owned by cooperatives or unions (associations) of fur farmers, spread in the Scandinavian countries. To conduct auctions, firms from different countries unite and organize the sale of their goods at auctions.

International Competitive Bidding(tenders). International Competitive Bidding is a method of concluding a sale or contract agreement in which the buyer announces a competition for sellers for a product with predetermined characteristics. After comparing the received offers, the buyer signs a contract with the seller who offered the goods on more favorable terms.

The buyer, who has made a decision to place an order through a tender, creates a tender commission. The panel includes technical and commercial experts as well as administration representatives from the buyer's side. Typically, the chairman of the bidding committee is the head of the buyer's organization.

The task of the competition committee is to:

Carry out organizational work on the bidding;

Inform potential sellers about the terms of the bidding;

Analyze incoming offers;

Make an informed decision to place an order.

Bidders by the deadline for their closing, which is established by the tender commission, prepare and submit their bids in converted form. After the closing of the auction, they have no right to change the terms of their offers and, if they receive an order, they must fulfill it in strict accordance with the submitted offers. Most often, through tenders, orders are placed for the supply of machinery and equipment, design and survey work for the construction (construction) of various objects.

This method allows attracting the most qualified suppliers and contractors to the competition and choosing the best option both financially and technically.

In international practice, the following types of trading are distinguished:

Vowels;

Unspoken;

Open;

Closed.

Vowel bidding- these are tenders, during which the tender commission opens envelopes with proposals and announces their basic conditions in the presence of representatives of the firms participating in the tenders. The result of open bidding is, as a rule, the publication of information about which company received the order, indicating the volume of the order and the total amount of the signed contract.

Secret bidding- this is an auction, during which the tender commission does not open the submitted bids in the presence of bidders and does not publish the results.

Open trades(public) - this is an auction in which all interested firms can participate. This usually attracts a larger number of participants, intensifies competition, which creates an opportunity to place an order on more favorable terms.

Subjects international trade when entering the world market in order to sell their products, they choose one or another method of organizing foreign trade activities. The method of international trade is the organizational form and procedure for the implementation of a foreign trade operation.

In international trade practice, two main methods of conducting trade operations are used: direct and indirect.

The choice of the method of foreign trade is influenced by the nature of the products, the scale of production, the characteristics of the target markets in which it is planned to sell the products, as well as the forms of international trade.

At direct method the implementation of foreign trade operations provides for the establishment of direct links between the manufacturer (supplier) and the end consumer, that is, the goods are delivered directly to the end consumer, and purchased directly from the manufacturer on the basis of an international sale and purchase agreement. About 50% of international trade takes place on the basis of direct links.

The direct method is usually used:

When TNK sells large and expensive industrial products.

When carrying out export-import operations between large TNCs for the supply of raw materials, semi-finished products, component parts and parts, etc .;

When supplying goods through foreign divisions of TNCs that own retail network... when exporting and importing industrial raw materials on the basis of long-term contracts;

When purchasing agricultural raw materials from farmers in developing countries;

In the implementation of foreign trade activities of state-owned enterprises and institutions of developing countries by organizing and conducting auctions.

Direct selling has a number of advantages: it gives exporters the opportunity to establish close contacts with foreign consumers, to exercise tight control over trade operations; get higher profits by reducing expenses by the amount of commission to the intermediary; better study the state and development trends of the market; adapt their production programs faster to the demand and requirements of the external market; to reduce the risk and dependence of the results of commercial activities on the bad faith of the intermediary organization.

The disadvantages of the direct trading method include: the presence of a high degree of risk, which is due to differences in economic, legal and social conditions in different countries, as well as the need to attract personnel with high commercial qualifications (otherwise, financial costs may increase significantly).

At indirect method the purchase and sale of goods is carried out through a trade and intermediary link on the basis of the conclusion of an agreement with a reseller, which provides for the fulfillment of certain obligations by the latter to sell the seller's goods.

Resellers are legal entities(firms, organizations, institutions, etc.) that facilitate the exchange of goods and are independent of producers and consumers. Their direct function is to connect sellers and buyers, to link supply and demand.

Commercial intermediation covers a wide range of services:

Search for a foreign counterparty;

Preparation and conclusion of a contract;

Lending to the parties and providing guarantees of payment for the goods by the buyer;

Carrying out transport and forwarding operations;

Insurance of goods during transportation;

Fulfillment of customs formalities;

Carrying out maintenance and other services.

More than half of all goods involved in international trade are sold with the assistance of resellers. Their services are widely used in foreign trade of the USA, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Sweden, Japan, etc.

The use of the trade and intermediary link is addressed by:

When selling standard industrial equipment and consumer goods;

When large firms sell secondary types of products;

When selling products in remote, hard-to-reach and poorly studied markets, markets of small capacity;

When promoting new products;

If there is no own sales network in the importing countries;

When large trade and intermediary firms monopolize the import of certain goods into the country;

Large firms with a small volume of export-import operations;

When carrying out occasional foreign trade operations by small and medium-sized firms.

The advantages of the indirect trading method are that:

· The exporting company does not invest in organizing a sales network in the territory of the importing country, since the trading and intermediary firms own their own material and technical base (warehouses, repair shops). This makes it easier to enter new markets;

· The exporter is exempt from activities related to the sale of goods (delivery to the importer, packaging, adaptation to the requirements of the local market, paperwork);

Intermediaries have at their disposal great opportunities in the organization of advertising, exhibitions, fairs;

· It becomes possible to use the capital of trade and intermediary firms to finance transactions on the basis of short-term and medium-term lending;

Resellers have strong business relationships with banks, insurance and transport companies;

· The markets for individual goods monopolized by trade and intermediary firms can only be reached through the use of an intermediary link.

The disadvantage of the indirect trading method is that the exporter is deprived of direct contacts with sales markets, as well as his dependence on the conscientiousness and activity of the reseller.

To the peculiarities of the activities of resellers in modern conditions refers to:

· Expansion of directions and spheres of trade and intermediary activities, which is carried out for individual goods (nomenclature), types of activities (wholesale, retail, parcels), operations performed (export, import), services provided, the nature of transactions and functions. The specialization of intermediaries in transactions with a certain group of goods is growing. The provision of various types of services in the complex is expanding;

· Linking resellers to manufacturers of machinery and equipment;

· Concentration of the overwhelming majority of trade and intermediary operations in the hands of a small number of TNCs with their own financial, insurance companies, fleet, warehouses of spare parts;

· Strengthening the influence of transnational corporations on trade intermediaries, which coordinate the scope and nature of their activities by dividing sales markets;

Subordination to large industrial companies of small and medium-sized trade and intermediary firms through a system of franchises, that is, long-term contracts with the granting of the exclusive right to sell goods and services while maintaining brand manufacturer;

· Submission to trade monopolies of small and medium-sized exporting firms and manufacturers in developing countries. Through them, the purchase of raw materials is carried out, which is independently processed and sold by them through their own retail stores;

Participation of trading and intermediary firms in international consortia for the implementation of large construction projects(carry out purchasing and sales operations for these enterprises).

International trade is the exchange of goods and services between different countries, associated with the general internationalization of economic life and the intensification of the international division of labor in the context of the scientific and technological revolution.

Some firms choose to stay away from international trade activities because of the risks and complexity involved. A firm wishing to buy goods abroad can buy them through an import intermediary. It is an international trader who purchases goods from foreign suppliers and profits from reselling those goods to other firms in their home country. Likewise, a firm may sell goods to an exporting intermediary or to an export firm in its home country.

A firm may also decide to limit its participation in international trade by relying on the services of a representative, agent or confirmation house.

An agent is a foreign firm that undertakes to perform any of the following functions for the benefit of the exporter:

· Receive orders from clients in the agent's country;

· Carry out quotations of prices for potential clients and fulfill other requirements of clients;

· Keep the exporter informed about local market conditions, prices, etc .;

· Deal with customer complaints.

Confirmation houses act as agents for overseas buyers. An overseas Buyer can ask the confirmation house to buy goods on his behalf and deliver credit to the buyer by paying for these goods. The English exporter would then be dealing with a UK confirmation house rather than an overseas buyer.

MT methods:
1.direct (Execution of transactions directly between producers and consumers)
2. indirect (implementation of external trade transactions through intermediaries)
Main intermediaries:
-exchanges
-international bidding
-international auctions

The method of international trade is a way of carrying out a trade exchange (trade operation or trade transaction) between its participants who are residents of both different (direct method) and one (indirect and cooperative methods) country. Although there are usually two main trading methods in international trade practice, it is customary to consider six methods.

Direct export (import) is an international trade transaction directly between a manufacturer / seller and a buyer / consumer / user. Its advantages:

reduces production costs;

reduces the risk and dependence of the results of activities on the possible dishonesty and incompetence of intermediaries;

allows the manufacturing company to constantly be on the foreign market, take into account its changes and respond in a timely manner.

Indirect export (import) is an international trade transaction through an intermediary. Its advantages:

the intermediary has a higher commercial qualification;

there is no need to concentrate financial and intellectual resources at the first stage of entering the foreign market.

Cooperative export (import) - the conclusion of an international trade transaction through a special intermediary, which is some organizational form business created by a group of initiators of this transaction, the completion of which by each individual member of this group seems impossible, too risky and / or economically ineffective.

Countertrade - stands out as a method due to the peculiarities of the preparation, support and completion of such international commercial transactions, payment for which is carried out without the use of (hard) currency or is only partially covered by currency, that is, it is noticeably different and differentiated by the method and procedure for carrying out international transactions.

International auctions, exchanges and trades - involve trading through special institutions. Taking into account the fact that all the listed institutions have a unifying function of establishing the quality and price of goods sold through them, based on the ratio of supply and demand and assessments of participants-buyers, some authors propose to call this method institutional-competitive.

14. The world market of goods and services and its conjuncture.

The development of the international division of labor lays the foundations for the formation and subsequent dynamic development of the world market. The modern world market was formed in the course of a long historical process on the basis of the internal markets of individual, primarily leading states, the interconnections of which gradually went beyond the national-state framework and developed already in the system of international economic relations.

The internal market is the sphere of economic communication (exchange), within which everything produced and intended for sale is sold within a given country (in other words, domestic products are sold within the country).

The national market is the entire market of a given country, part of which is associated with international exchange (export and import of goods and services).

The international market is the part of national markets that is directly related to foreign markets and is targeted at foreign buyers and sellers.

The world market is a synthetic concept that unites the markets of all countries of the world into a single whole.

The transition from the domestic market to the world market reflects the historical evolution in the development of the market - from its primary, relatively simple forms associated exclusively with the domestic market, to the complex complex interactions of the modern world market, where market strategies of a truly global scale are often implemented.

Let's consider the main features of the world market:

1) it is based on the development of a market economy, looking for areas and objects of sale, effective international interaction in general, beyond the national framework;

2) the world market is manifested in the interstate movement of goods, services and the main factors of production ( work force, capital) under the influence of not only internal, but also external factors of supply and demand;

3) the world market (to a greater extent than the domestic one) optimizes the use of production factors, directing their movement to the most efficient spheres and sectors of the market;

4) the world market acts as a kind of filter, rejecting certain goods from international exchange that do not correspond international standards quality and do not withstand the stringent requirements of international competition. In this regard, international trade distinguishes between the concepts of so-called tradable goods that are sold

in foreign markets, and non-tradable goods that are sold in the same country where they are produced.

And give an example of the market from your project.

15. Price, methods of pricing in international trade.

Price, pricing methods in international trade.
Price is a monetary expression of the value of the goods.
World prices are the prices at which large import, export operations are carried out. condition of MT of specific goods.
Basic prices are the PRICES that are the basis for determining price indices.

16. Foreign trade policy of the state: concept, purpose, types. (prices of goods

V.T. state policy is a complex of state. Measures for the purposeful regulation of the volume of foreign trade and the influence of the state on the subjects involved in the M.T.

Maximizing benefits, not just economic

Advantages:

Disadvantages:

Increased technologist and financial dependence on industrialized countries

Protectionism is a foreign trade policy of the state aimed at encouraging its own subjects of foreign trade, protecting their interests from foreigners. competitors in foreign and domestic markets.

Protectionism and free trade

17. Tariff instruments of foreign trade policy of the state: concept, characteristics of advantages and disadvantages.

These are indirect taxes levied by the state for protectionist or fiscal purposes on goods at the time they cross the borders.

The main functions of customs duties:

1) Fiscal - replenishment of the state budget income

2) Protective - protection of a domestic manufacturer

3) Balancing - preventing unwanted exports

Classification:

By the method of establishing:

A) Ad valorem - set in% ah to the price of goods that have a qualitative difference within the 1st group

B) Specific - set by quantity, weight or volume, as a rule, of standard goods

C) Combination (A + B) - (for example 5% of the price of goods for no more than $ 10

D) Alternative - setting 1 rate (ad valorem or specific), providing. Max. Budget income

In the direction of movement of goods

A) imported

B) export

C) Transit

Depending on the time of action

A) Temporary - to regulate exports and imports for the period of mass deliveries

B) permanent - the entire period of bargaining in these goods is valid

Depending on the directions of action

A) FMSKAL - established for the import of goods not produced in the country

B) protection is established on goods produced in the country to protect the manufacturer

C) anti-dumping

D) Compensatory - are introduced for the purpose of equalizing the prices of an analogue. Nationally produced and imported goods that are subsidized due to the inclusion of duties in the price of goods.

Depending on the size:

A) maximum - Usually set for all countries without agreement with them

B) Minimum - are established as a rule by mutual agreement.

C) Preferential - I usually increase below the minimum,

D) Optimal - Set as a result of negotiations

By the nature of origin

Conventional - established on the basis of international agreements as obligations of the participating countries

B) Autonomous - The country fixes tariffs on its own.

Advantages:

Protecting the interests of a domestic manufacturer

Replenishment of the state budget

disadvantages

1) Increase in prices

2) Deteriorating conditions of foreign trade

3) A decrease in the exchange rate of the country of the initiator of its maintenance and, as a consequence, leads to a reduction in exports and imports.

18. Non-tariff instruments of foreign trade policy of the state: concept, characteristics of advantages and disadvantages.

Quotas in foreign trade is a measure of operational regulation of foreign economic relations by the state, which:

Imposes quantitative and cost restrictions on the import (export) of goods into the country;

Introduced for a certain period in relation to certain goods, vehicles, works, services, etc., to countries or to groups of countries;

Acts as:

Non-tariff measure of foreign economic regulation;

The regulator of supply and demand in the domestic market;

Responding to discriminatory actions by foreign trading partners, etc.

Voluntary export restrictions

An agreement made by the exporters of a particular country or its government to restrict exports to some other country. The established restriction can be in quantitative form, cost or form market share... Export restrictions are considered "voluntary" even if they are enforced under duress to avoid the threat of tariff or other barriers to trade. However, there can be genuine voluntariness if the exporting firms plan to make more profits from the export of a smaller volume of products by selling them at higher prices.

Export subsidies

EXPORT SUBSIDY - financial assistance to the exporter from the state. It is used by the state to encourage the export of certain types of products and provide services to foreign partners, to expand exports, to master foreign markets.

Dumping (from the English dumping - reset) - sale of goods at artificially low prices. Dumping prices are significantly lower than market prices, and sometimes even lower than the cost of goods or services

Economic sanctions

Actions taken by one country or group of countries against the economic interests of another country or group of countries, usually with the aim of bringing about social or political change in that country (ies). Typically, sanctions take the form of restrictions on imports or exports or on financial transactions. They can relate to specific goods or transactions, or they can be expressed in a comprehensive ban on trade.

19. Modern forms of foreign trade policy.

Free trading. This economic theory, based on the policy of non-interference of the state in international trade, assumes complete freedom of foreign trade in making and implementing their decisions.

Advantages:

Stimulates the processes of competition

Approximation of product quality to world quality

Accelerated formation of market infrastructure

Disadvantages:

In the short term, employment decline

Destructive impact on domestic producers with the destruction of entire industries and individual important enterprises

Increased technologist and financial dependence on industrially developed companies

· Loss of nat. Producers of a part of the domestic market

Protectionism is the foreign trade policy of the state aimed at encouraging its own subjects of foreign trade, protecting their interests from foreigners. Competitors in foreign and domestic markets.

Selective - directed against certain entities, countries, firms, TNCs or trade objects.

Co-selective - involves the unification of actions of groups of countries against countries outside of them (WTO)

Industry-specific - aimed at protecting individual industries

Hidden - not recognizing actions as protectionism, but explains its actions by the unsafe goods

Economic autarchy is the policy of economic isolation of the state. Only goods not produced in the country are allowed on the market and ensures complete subordination of exports to imports (North Korea, USSR, 1st French Empire (my version))

Found error:

The trading style is unique for each trader. A trader's trading style on the exchange depends on his initial experience in money management and the meaning of money in his life.

There are many trading styles, but this does not mean that traders are unable to go against their natural preferences, and it does not mean that choosing one trading style over another prevents it from changing.

There are many ways to characterize a trading style. Some people define this by the markets in which they trade or the currencies and commodities they trade. Others use fundamental or technical divisions, others characterize this with trading types, such as spreads or options. The following are different styles and trading methods:

Scalping method

Impulse trading

Technical method

Intermarket Spread Trading

Arbitrage trading

Scalping method

The scalping method is to buy and sell a market instrument many times during the day with a small surplus, which in general amounts to huge profits. This method is not based on random profit, at the same time, the chances of losses are much less, so it is a fairly safe method.

When scalping, traders increase profits on small movements and trade by analyzing one to five minute intraday charts, with position durations of several minutes, and very small profit per trade. Open positions are never rolled over to another day.

Impulse trading

The main idea of ​​trading on impulses is that an upward market instrument will continue to rise and a downward one will continue to fall. Trading impulses requires some of the most general analytical skills.

The basic principle is that you will not buy a market instrument at the low, but sell at the high. If you do not buy an instrument until you see that it has begun to rise, then this means that you missed the opportunity to buy it at the very bottom. Likewise, if you do not sell an instrument until you see it decline, then you have missed your opportunity to sell it at the very top.

The main technical indicators are dynamic indicators that accumulate the net change in the closing price of an instrument from a series of specified time intervals. The impulse line is drawn as a tandem line to the price chart and shows the zero axis. Positive readings indicate a supported upside move, while negative readings indicate a potentially supported downside move. An upward or downward direction of the indicator indicates a “strong move” of the instrument.

When a trader is confident that he has identified a strong movement in a market instrument, he makes a trade. It doesn't matter if the first one or two ticks of a move are skipped, it is ready to buy (or sell) during one of the next momentum periods.

Trading on impulses is also fraught with dangers that can easily destroy even a well-disciplined and knowledgeable trader. With a proper understanding of the technique, a sufficient knowledge of the risks, and a willingness to accept an accidental loss, trading on impulses can be attractive to aggressive traders who like to balance on the edge.

Technical method

The technical method applies to all market instruments and is aimed at making quick profits. Technical traders evaluate the history of a company (in the case of stocks), analyze charts and price movements, evaluate trading patterns in the past to predict what might happen in the future, and may even trade volume over a period of time.

The technical method involves studying price movement and trading volumes to identify Head and Shoulder patterns and other formations. Other indicators include support and resistance levels, moving averages, etc.

The main disadvantages of the technical method

The main disadvantages of this trading method are:

• Too much reliance on past behavior of the market instrument.
• Lots of technical indicators. There is no perfect indicator for every market instrument.

Intermarket Spread Trading

Trading on an intermarket spread consists of a long position on one market instrument and a short position on another instrument, which are closely related to each other. The logic of working on an intermarket spread is that buying and selling two different instruments effectively uses the correlation between them. Trading on the intermarket spread is considered very difficult to do as it requires trades on different exchanges. It is mainly used for commodity futures contracts.

Arbitrage trading

Also known as “risk free profit,” an arbitrage trading system is performed by simultaneously buying and selling a market instrument in order to profit from the price differential. This trading system is usually applied on different exchanges or trading platforms... An investor can profit from the difference in prices of a market instrument on two different exchanges due to fluctuations in exchange rates.

Another way to trade arbitrage is when an investor wants to sell a market instrument at a certain price. It places an order to sell at that price and at the same time places an order to buy at a higher price. As a result, other investors can then buy the instrument at the first price, tempted by the higher price offered in the second order. As soon as the first sell order is executed, the investor cancels his second buy order. Thus, he not only gets rid of his illiquid asset, but also makes good money on it.

Arbitrage trading is usually practiced by large institutional investors with multi-million dollar assets. Arbitrage trading is most effective in low-liquid markets.

Depending on the commodity specialization of export and import flows, international trade is usually distinguished and accounted for as (1) trade finished products, (2) trade in machinery and equipment, (3) trade in raw materials and semi-finished products, (4) trade in services, and (5) trade in intellectual property. Commodity specialization leaves its essential imprint on the content and forms of international commercial transactions. The subjects of international commercial transactions can be systematized as follows:

1. Goods in material form:

a) finished products,

b) machinery and equipment,

c) raw materials and semi-finished products.

2. Scientific and technical knowledge, intellectual property:

a) documentary form(e.g. patents, know-how, copyright),

b) personified form(sending specialists or instructors, training, tours).

3. Services of the class "international complex engineering" or any combination of the following components:

a) technological engineering(development / adaptation of project documentation and / or technologies required for the modernization of production or infrastructure facilities),

b) consulting engineering(intellectual services for the design of production or infrastructure facilities, as well as for installation supervision and commissioning),

c) construction or structural engineering(a range of services included in technological or consulting engineering plus all or any of the following items: (a) international procurement of materials and equipment necessary for the implementation of the project; (b) organization of international project financing; (c) management contract associated with the modernized or facility created by the engineering company).

Services to improve marketing or production activities.

5. Domestic services the population(e.g. dry cleaning, renovation, catering).

6. Services of the class "international tourism":

a) inbound tourism(export of tourism services),

b) outbound tourism(import of travel services).

In accordance with this, it is possible to classify the forms and methods of international commercial transactions (Table 7), as well as to link the main methods of international trade with the subjects of international sales contracts (Table 8):

Table 7. The most probable correspondence of the method and form of an international commercial transaction, depending on the content of the subject of the international transaction

Table 8. Relationship between types of objects of international trade with three traditional methods of their implementation

Under by trading method one should understand a fundamentally separate way of achieving the goal of international trade, in which its participant is involved. International trade method Is a way of carrying out a trade exchange (trade operation or trade transaction) between its participants who are residents of both different (direct method) and one (indirect and cooperative methods) country. Let's look at six trading methods. The first and second are the basic methods. The third, which originated in the field of small and medium-sized businesses, occupies a middle position between them. The fourth, fifth and sixth methods by the end of the twentieth century. proved their viability

1) direct export (import) - the conclusion of an international trade transaction directly between the manufacturer (seller) and the buyer (consumer or user);

2) indirect export (import) –Completion of an international trade transaction through an intermediary.

3) cooperative export (import) - the execution of an international trade transaction through a special intermediary, which is a certain organizational form of business created by a group of initiators of this transaction, the completion of which by each individual member of the specified group seems impossible, too risky and / or economically ineffective.

4) countertrade, which stands out as a method due to the peculiarities of the preparation, support and completion of such international commercial transactions, payment for which is carried out without the use of (hard) currency or is only partially covered by currency, i.e. differs markedly and is generalized by the method and procedure for the implementation of international transactions.

5) international auctions, exchanges and trading or institutional competitive - the listed institutions have the unifying function of establishing the quality and price of goods sold through them, based on the ratio of supply and demand and assessments of participants-buyers.

6) electronic commerce, or e - trade - has developed only in the last decade of the XX century, when such a basic resource, or a sufficient condition for globalization, as global communication systems, the information part of which was realized in the creation of the World Wide Web - the Internet, matures and undergoes qualitative changes.

As for the forms of international trade (see Table 7), since the form is a way of existence and expression of content (in this case, the content of an international commercial transaction), these forms are as diverse as the content of international trade as a whole. An international transaction, considered as an object, and, therefore, its content depends not only on the will of the parties to the transaction and the subject of this transaction. Since all economic systems are in a certain relationship with each other, largely realized through international trade, then acts of international trade always affect the national or cosmopolitan interests of various forces (for example, small, medium and large business, governments, political parties and movements). In this regard, the parties to the transaction must always take into account these interests, the political expression of which informally or legitimately takes the form of certain restrictions imposed on the focal (transnational, international) transaction.

11.1. Direct and indirect methods of international trade

International export and import transactions for the purchase and sale of goods form the basis of traditional forms of international trade. Under the terms of such a transaction, the seller (resident of one country) undertakes to transfer the goods into the ownership of the buyer (resident of another country) within the terms stipulated by the contract and on the conditions specified there, and the buyer, in turn, undertakes to accept this product and pay for it as agreed in the contract sum of money. A purchase and sale transaction (like any other commercial operation) takes on the character of an international trade transaction if the contract (agreement) formalizing it is concluded between two or more parties (legal entities or individuals) who are residents of different countries. The formal sign of the international nature of the transaction is the different nationality of the legal addresses of the parties to the transaction.

By virtue of the foregoing, which coincides with the interpretation of this issue in the Vienna Convention (the UN Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, 1980) and in the Hague Convention on the Law Applicable to Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1985), the contract of purchase sales are recognized as international if it is concluded between the parties of the same state (national) affiliation and if the organizations representing them are located and accredited on the territory of different states.

However, the same contract is not considered international if the organizations representing it are located and accredited in the territory of the same country. For example, an agreement on the provision of audit services concluded between any Russian or foreign company accredited in St. Petersburg and the reputable company Arthur Andersen is not international. Export and import operations (export and import) remain the main and most common types of international commercial transactions in trade in goods.

Distinctive feature direct method international trade is the fact that a transnational / multinational (TNC / MNC) company is directly involved in all the main and (usually part of) supporting operations related to the preparation, conclusion, execution and support of international sales contracts, as well as other agreements, constituting the subject of international commercial business, when counterparties (partners) are residents of different countries.

Import is a form of international commercial activity, or trade, which is associated with the purchase and import of foreign goods into the buyer's country (fatherland) for their subsequent sale on the domestic market. Its main features are the conclusion of a contract with a foreign counterparty and crossing the border of the importing country.

The import of services has a special specificity, since in this case the consumed service is created directly on the territory of the importing country. Crossing borders is relevant only for material and intellectual resources, the totality of which is necessary for the production of appropriate services. The imported goods can be either finished products intended for sale or raw materials for processing. A prerequisite for an import operation is the solvency of the importer.

From a formal point of view, imports are understood and international and national statistics are taken into account:

Importation into the country of goods of foreign origin from the country of the manufacturing company or from the country of an international reseller, both for production purposes and for personal consumption;

Import of goods from free zones or attached warehouses;

Importation of goods for processing under customs control, involving subsequent processing or assembly for the purpose of exporting abroad the final product containing the previously imported goods in a processed form or changed role.

Reimport represents the import into the homeland of previously exported goods that have not been processed abroad, but are returned to the country of origin for one of the following reasons: 1) the inability to sell this product on the market previously selected for export; 2) return of defective goods for replacement or to restore their consumer properties (repair) at the manufacturer; 3) return of unsold goods and samples due to bankruptcy or liquidation of a foreign partner or branch.

In import operations (with the exception of institutional and corporate international purchases), the buyer plays a less active role, which is typical for the current situation of the “buyer's market”, which is observed in the aggregate of world commodity markets.

A domestic buying company usually faces the need to solve the following three problems:

1) making a compromise when choosing an imported product according to the criterion "price-quality";

2) minimization of risk transactions due to:

Counterparty reliability checks;

Carefully drafting the body of the contract and introducing effective protective clauses or paragraphs;

Selecting the form of payment for the contract with an adequate degree of risk;

Insurance of the transaction (if it does not catastrophically reduce the competitiveness of the imported goods);

3) verification of the compliance of the transaction with the legal regime of the fatherland,namely:

Identifying the need to obtain an import license;

Calculation of the additive for the invoice price of uncleared goods import duty, VAT, excise and duties.

The importing company, when specifying the intended import operation, as in the case of export, in accordance with 3 traditional and 2 converted methods of international trade, can make the following choice:

Search for a foreign exporter on your own (for example, traditional, usually specialized media and the Internet, international exhibitions, fairs, as well as referring to business contacts available with TNK / MNC counterparties);

Apply with a commercial request to the relevant intermediary export-import companies or to foreign resellers (agents, consignees, distributors, representative offices of firms and banks accredited in the homeland);

Contact mixed chambers of commerce, industry and commerce, clubs and associations of business cooperation; to international auctions, stock exchanges, trading; finally, to create a consortium or firm of interested domestic companies to carry out all (main and auxiliary) import operations and obtain a general benefit (for example, from an increase in the volume of total imports).

Export is a form of international commercial activity, or trade, which is associated with the sale and export of goods abroad for transferring them into the ownership of a foreign counterparty. For the seller, it does not matter what the buyer will do with this product - will it be recycled, sold on the domestic market, or resold to a third country. For the seller and his homeland, in any case, it will be an export operation. Its main features are the conclusion of a contract with a foreign counterparty and the crossing of the border of the exporting country by the goods.

Historically and logically, export is the first (import as a whole is not a mandatory stage in the formation of an international company) practical step of any company towards the internationalization of its activities as the most traditional decision on the choice of technology for entering the intended foreign market. The motives for the start and development of export activities can be: (1) the general task of increasing the overall profitability of the business; (2) a decrease in demand and / or an increase in competition (including due to imported goods) in the domestic market; (3) extending the life cycle of a product by exporting it to outsider markets; (4) the ability to “skim the cream off” in foreign markets due to temporarily increased prices due to unmet demand for goods exported by TNCs / MNCs; (5) smoothing out sharp fluctuations in demand and reducing commercial risks through the geographical distribution of the main target markets; (6) gaining recognition abroad and gaining a positive international image for the trade name of the domestic company and its brands; (7) commercial inquiries from overseas; (8) increasing the liquidity of the assets of the enterprise by attracting foreign sources of hard cash; (9) obtaining additional commercial effect due to possible competitive advantages national factors of production and the resource potential of the fatherland; (10) the desire to recoup R&D costs faster and more cost-effectively than can be done in the domestic market; (11) directly connect to and benefit from international benchmarking in both manufacturing and marketing; (12) the exit of TNCs / MNCs abroad as a psychological and economic feeling by the management of the exporting company of the viability and efficiency of their business.

Re-export is a special form of export, characterized in that the subject of export is a previously imported product that has not undergone significant processing in the home country of the exporting company. However, despite the fact that the goods in the receiving country are not subjected to indigenous processing, such operations that do not lead to a change in the classification of goods are often carried out with them, such as packaging, packaging, labeling, which are necessary to prepare the goods in accordance with the requirements of the receiving country. If the cost of additional operations for the processing of an imported product has exceeded half (50%) of its new, export price, then the product, according to international trade practice, changes its name and is no longer considered re-export, and sales operations turn into export operations.

Depending on the specific situation and incentive reasons, the following types of re-export can be distinguished:

forced re-export- arises in cases when a previously imported product cannot be efficiently or in general (due to unaccounted for prohibitions) cannot be sold on the domestic market of the exporting company;

speculative re-export- mainly concerns exchange-traded goods that can be purchased (often not even imported into the homeland of the exporting company) for the purpose of further resale with a predicted increase in the price of these goods, making it cost-effective to re-export;

technological re-export- typical, for example, for construction engineering companies, in turnkey projects, as well as for OEM companies, ie for such cases when previously imported (or physically or legally not imported into the homeland) goods are included constituent parts(nodes, modules) into the export products of the exporting company;

accounting re-export- operations carried out without importing goods into their country (for example, from the territory of free zones and attached warehouses), but considered by customs statistics as export operations, the economic efficiency of which is ensured by the difference in prices for the same goods in different markets.

An international or internationalizing company, if its resources allow it, can export directly, i.e. conduct export operations independently, without intermediaries. In this case, an international company directly enters into international sales contracts with foreign buyers, for which it organizes an export department (or international marketing department) and staffs it with its own personnel.

The solution to the personnel problem turns out to be quite difficult business, since employees of the export department must be qualified to understand international trade, the execution of customs documentation, insurance, analyze alternatives to international transport and forwarding operations, and also be sufficiently experienced in international marketing tactics and its linkage with specific types of international operations selected by the company management for implementation of international marketing strategies... All this requires significant costs from the company and becomes expedient only when regularity and a sufficiently large volume of exports are achieved.

For direct export, the exporting company sells its goods to wholesaler resellers (for example, domestic distributors or foreign purchasing houses) resident in the markets of the host country. Communication (agreement) between the exporting company and the local distributor can be organized both through a foreign agent and directly. The distributor, entered into the agreement, buys the goods from the exporting company at his own expense for further resale in the local foreign market. Thus, attracting the marketing experience of an international distributor allows the exporting company to reduce the risk of its operation in the foreign market and increase the total sales volume, but at the same time its control over the market is weakened due to the fact that only the distributor works with end customers.

In the event of a significant increase in export activities, the focal international company(TNC / MNC), causing an increase in the scale and complication of the functions of the export department cut off from foreign markets, it becomes justified to carry out direct exports through export trading subsidiary. In other words, the outpost of marketing activities is being taken out directly to the foreign market. Compared to the export department within a domestic company, the subsidiary benefits from reducing economic risks, since it is an independent profit center . In addition, it can have a number of tax incentives, receive additional local funding and, in general, be in direct contact with the buyer, which cannot but increase its economic efficiency. In the event that market control is especially important for the domestic parent company, it moves from the idea of ​​establishing a local subsidiary to the creation in this market. overseas trade branch. A similar branch conducts in this market the weight of the sale, distribution and promotion of the goods of the focal international company (TNK / MNC), carrying out the sale of exported goods to local wholesalers and dealers. Such a branch is the initial link in the distribution network of the foreign market and, therefore, must have storage facilities and equipment necessary for processing goods flows, as well as for the movement of spare parts and repair work.

In some cases, it is possible for an exporting company to work directly through its own distribution networks with end customers, i.e. implementation of our own overseas retail trade. In this case, the export is a purely direct export, and buyers (importers) can be: (1) a company that purchases business goods (for example, an international engineering company, acting in front of a buyer (customer) as a general contractor, collecting (often in different countries) subcontractors for performing a complex project); (2) state, municipality or public institution; (3) specialized (branded) retail chains; (4) hotels and restaurants (purchase of perishable delicacies); (5) companies that carry out national mail order catalog trade, as well as the individuals who are the final purchasers of these national companies; (6) individuals who are participants in e-commerce via the Internet.

In general, the objective reasons for the possibility and feasibility direct export , as well as other forms within the framework of the direct method of international trade, there may be: 1) the presence on external business markets of regular buyers of industrial and agricultural raw materials, who, due to the applied processing technologies, are important for the consistency of raw materials; 2) problems of organizing the export of large-sized and expensive equipment; 3) organization of exports, providing TNC / MNCs with supplies for the operation of their own foreign branches and subsidiaries; 4) organization of export to its own distribution network, created on the territory of the receiving countries; 5) the creation of international strategic alliances, requiring, as a rule, direct supplies of raw materials and semi-finished products, components and parts for organizing production; 6) increasing the technical level and complexity of export goods, especially machinery and equipment (including complete ones), ships, aircraft, as well as specialized structures; 7) the need to establish direct contacts between the seller and the buyer at the design stage and development of the technical and economic parameters of the equipment in order to take into account the buyer's requirements and the latest achievements of spiders and technology; 8) the need to provide continuous pre-sales and after-sales service, complementing the export of complex units and technological systems requiring direct communication between the manufacturer (seller) and the buyer (user); 9) the specifics of the trade in weapons, military materials and goods of the so-called dual use.

Direct export, like other forms within the direct method of international trade, provides the exporting company with certain advantages, including: (1) economic efficiency export, since the technical costs of export are reduced (at least by the amount of the commission to the domestic intermediary); (2) reducing the risks and dependence of the economic results of commercial activities on possible dishonesty or insufficient competence of domestic intermediaries; (3) full-fledged opportunities to create a positive image of the exporting company and its brands; (4) ensuring the constant presence of the exporting company in the foreign, local market, allowing it to take into account and promptly respond to changes in the market situation.

At the same time, there are disadvantages of direct export, which can negate its advantages (which is also true for other forms within the framework of the direct method of international trade) and lead not only to a decrease in economic efficiency, but also to direct losses: a) significant diversion of human and financial resources to organize their own export activities; b) a significant expansion of routine and previously unfamiliar work (selection of target markets, identification and selection of foreign intermediaries, as well as the implementation of the following international logistics functions - preparation of export documentation, customs clearance and cargo insurance, export packaging, freight carrier chartering and shipment); c) lack of commercial qualifications and trading experience in the field of international trade, which can lead to the fact that export costs not only do not decrease, but also significantly increase; d) the exporting company has to assume all the risks generated by economic, political, legal and social adverse changes, as well as cross-cultural differences in the traditions and customs of doing business in different countries.

Based on the nature of the shortcomings of direct exports, which are especially significant for novice exporters from the sphere of small and medium-sized businesses, it can be concluded that it is advisable to use such a method of indirect international trade as indirect export . The main characteristic of indirect exports is the use of experienced intermediaries in the organization of export and import transactions. Such intermediaries provide a full range of international marketing services, as well as assume all risks and perform routine operations related to international trade. The most important intangible asset that intermediaries bring to the implementation of international transactions is their experience with international trade technologies, as well as knowledge of the specifics of the markets of the host countries. The sizes, organizational structures and names of indirect export intermediaries are very diverse. Among them, we can note, for example, export management companies, trading houses purchasing houses and just brokers. In Russia, these are export-import intermediary firms, as a rule, with a product-market specialization. The largest export (import) traders, through the networks of which both their own goods and goods from other manufacturers pass, are Japanese universal trading houses - sogo shosha. Very often, trading houses are created specifically to serve international trade aimed at individual regions. The Anglo-Dutch company Unilever established the United Africa Company for this purpose, and the European capital created the Jardine Matheson trading company in Hong Kong. through which it exports to Southeast Asia.

It is known that more than half of the international exchange of goods is carried out with the assistance of trade intermediaries, i.e. from the point of view of the classification of the main methods of international trade - independent from the producers and consumers of goods of trading companies, organizations and persons who are residents of the homeland of the company producing the export goods. The role of resellers is especially important in the distribution of standard industrial equipment, standardized industrial raw materials and consumer goods. In addition, the use of intermediaries, and therefore indirect methods of international trade, often serves as a preliminary stage for internationalizing companies before they move to direct export.