The main factors of the effectiveness of psychological influences are. Factors affecting the effectiveness of the group. The process of formation and development of the labor collective

RESEARCH OF THE MAIN PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE EFFICIENCY OF JOINT ACTIVITIES OF THE LABOR COLLECTIVE

Yarovaya Marina Yurievna
Moscow State Regional University
bachelor of psychology

THE RESEARCH OF THE KEY PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE EFFICIENCY OF STAFF GROUP PRACTICE

Yarovaya Marina Yurevna
Moscow State Regional University
bachelor of psychology

Bibliographic link to the article:
Yarovaya M.Yu. Investigation of the main psychological factors affecting the effectiveness of joint activities of the labor collective // ​​Humanitarian research. 2016. No. 12 [Electronic resource] .. 03.2019).

In the early 1960s in Russia, to study joint activities, many psychological studies were carried out, which made a great contribution to the formation, formation and development of collective labor psychology. Different scientists formulated this problem in their own way, but among themselves all the statements were related by the following terms: "group activity", "group activity", "group interaction", "collective activity", "joint activity", "joint activity", etc. .NS. To this day, despite the differences in wording, the problem of joint activity is at the center of attention of labor and management psychologists, social and organizational psychologists.

V modern world for domestic production, aimed at improving the economic well-being of people, the main social problem is to build an effective incentive system that would motivate workers to fruitful joint work and achieve their goals, taking into account the importance of psychological factors.

This problem was investigated by specialists in the field of engineering psychology and labor psychology (FD Gorbov and MA Novikov); social psychologists (B. G. Ananyeva and E. S. Kuzmina), N. V. Golubeva, N. N. Obozov, A. A. Rusalinova, A. L. Sventsitsky, E. S. Chugunova and others, whose the goal was to optimize interpersonal relationships and increase the performance indicators of joint labor activity collectives.

In the 1970s, psychological phenomena were intensively studied in groups performing joint work: organization (A.S. Chernyshev), their emotional and psychological states (A.N. Lutoshkin), group volitional effort (L.I. Akatov), ​​motivation group activity (EI Timoshchuk), harmony (NN Obozov), etc., which could have an impact on the effectiveness of activities.

Of course, some of the phenomena and problems of joint activities at enterprises were considered in the social psychology of work groups and collectives, and were also highlighted in the study of the socio-psychological climate, leadership qualities, leadership style, etc. However, it was only in the 1980s that joint activities began acquire the status of a separate subject of scientific research.

Based on the analysis of experimental and theoretical research we have a number of ideas about the subject of joint activity:

• the subject is the individual (in this case, the activity is individual, and the subject is each participant individually, which implies the achievement of a result by only one of the participants);
• the subject is a set of individuals who solve (as defined by L. I. Umansky) one "common" problem in "one space at the same time" .

In the research of R. L. Krichevsky, the key characteristic of the subject of joint activity is the goal of collective interaction of the group, which depends on the motive of the participants' activity.

According to A. L. Zhuravlev, the main characteristics of the subject of joint activity are "purposefulness, motivation, level of integrity, structuredness, consistency, organization, efficiency, spatial and temporal characteristics of the living conditions of the collective subject."

As we can see, the basis for the definition of the subject is the structural components and individual signs of the activity itself.

So, let us single out the fundamental properties of the subject of joint activity, interconnected with each other:

a) purposefulness;

b) motivation;

c) integrity:

The frequency and intensity of contacts;

Functional interconnectedness level;

d) structuredness (consists in a clear distribution of the main functions and responsibilities;

e) consistency in actions;

f) organization.

Defining interaction as “a system of actions in which the actions of one person or a group of persons determine certain actions of others, and the actions of the latter, in turn, determine the actions of the first”, A. L. Zhuravlev notes that “the structure of joint activity actually develops, functions and develops precisely through the interaction between its individual participants. "

Joint activity requires a high level of group cohesion and value-orientational unity of the participants. The staff can more or less effectively go to the implementation of the assigned tasks, depending on the following factors.

Band size. According to Ralph K. Davis, the ideal group size should be between 3-9 people. His opinion is shared by Keith Davis, who believes that the optimal number of group members should be 5 people. There is an opinion that a group of 5-9 people is more cohesive and operational, while in a group of less than five participants, the creative potential is noticeably reduced. This is influenced by a smaller number of ideas put forward for discussion, as well as a large number of refusals from risky decisions in order to avoid personalized responsibility. Numerous groups (more than 9 participants) have their own difficulties, as these groups are difficult to coordinate, and its members often have difficulty in expressing their ideas to others.

The composition of the team(here the similarity of personalities, points of view, approaches, which manifests itself in solving problems, is considered). Based on the research of scientists, we can conclude that in a group consisting of individuals who are not similar to each other, the effectiveness of joint activities will be much higher, compared with a group of people where similar points of view on different situations prevail. According to O. Meiner, groups with different points of view come up with more quality solutions.

Group norms, as we know, include the rules developed and approved by the working group, which regulate the relationship between all actors in the work collective. The norms tell the team what discipline should be. And only the fulfillment of all approved norms allows each participant to be part of the team, counting on his recognition and support.

Group cohesion represents a certain degree of unity of its subjects, consistency in actions in the performance of joint activities and stability of relationships. In teams where trusting relationships prevail, there are no problems in communication between people, there are high indicators of the group's labor productivity, and the efficiency of the activity itself also increases. But there may be a situation where a high degree of cohesion negatively affects the productivity of the entire enterprise. This happens when the goals of the group and the entire organization do not agree.

Conflict group. The presence of dissimilar people in the group contributes to the increase in the efficiency of its work as a whole. But while active exchange of views is very beneficial, it can also lead to intra-group disputes and other manifestations of conflict, which are always detrimental.

Group member status indicates the position of each subject of the group relative to its other members, as well as its role in the system of interpersonal relations. An increase and decrease in status can be influenced by such factors as position, educational level, experience, seniority and others, depending on the values ​​and norms of the group. It is also important that those members whose status is high have a greater influence on the adoption of final decisions in the group. But you should take into account the fact that often "newbies" bring such interesting, extraordinary ideas that turn out to be more useful and effective for the organization. In this regard, it is extremely important for the leadership of the organization to create such a climate in which each member of the group would express his opinion about any proposed situation, regardless of his status in the team.

Roles of group members. For a group to function effectively, all of its actors must work towards common goals. There are two main directions of roles for creating a normally working group: target (to be able to select group tasks and perform them); supportive (contribute to the revitalization of the life and activities of the team).

Of course, each employee of the working team makes a certain contribution to the achievement of the organizational goal in two main areas: fulfills his professional (target) role; as well as an intragroup (public) role.

Consequently, the effectiveness of joint activities directly depends on how correctly the working group accepts its knowledge, skills, and abilities in target and intragroup roles, based on organizational goals and objectives.

Group effectiveness refers to how well the group performs at its assigned tasks. Usually, the effectiveness of a group is compared with the success of the work of the same number of individuals and it is considered that the group works effectively if the results of its activities exceed the combined (summarized) results of the activities of the same number of people acting independently of each other.

Investigating small groups, psychologists have repeatedly been convinced that the knowledge of the patterns of interaction and relationships between people in them can increase the effectiveness of group work. Almost all the characteristics of a group we have considered - size, communication channels, composition, interpersonal relationships, leadership style, and others - are important for successful group work. It is now appropriate to pose and discuss the following questions.

• 1. Is the influence of each of the above factors on the effectiveness of group activities the same?
• 2. What are the connections between each of them and the success of the group work?
• 3. Are these connections unambiguous, or in different situations and the conditions of group work can they be different?

In search of answers to these questions, all the previously considered socio-psychological characteristics of a group can be divided into two classes: formal, describing the structure of the group, ways of organizing joint activities and communication of people, and meaningful, directly reflecting the relationship of people in this group, that is, its social psychology ...

The formal characteristics of a group include the number of members in a given group, its composition, communication channels, features of the group task, the distribution of responsibilities between members of the group; to meaningful - interpersonal relationships, norms, value orientations, roles, statuses, leadership.

The question of what to give preference to when studying the effectiveness of group activity - its formal or substantive characteristics - is rather complicated and is solved ambiguously. The psychological characteristics of the group directly affect its work, but it is not easy to change them, and moreover, they depend on the formal properties of the group, for example, on its composition. The formal aspects of group work, on the contrary, are easier to manage, but they only indirectly affect the success of group activity - through the psychology of its constituent individuals. Therefore, it is important, among other things, to find an answer to the question of how the formal and content characteristics of a group are interconnected in their joint influence on the effectiveness of group activities.

You can build the various factors that affect the success of group activities, according to their importance or logical priority. Let's try to do this.

From the formal and substantive characteristics of the group (from the point of view of their joint influence on the success of the group's work), in the first place can be put substantive, and not all, but only those that characterize the group as a developed collective. They should be followed, apparently, by the formal and general content characteristics of the group (Fig. 2).

Considering the question of the signs of the effectiveness of group work, social psychologists offer the following solution. There are three main criteria for the effectiveness of the group: productivity, quality of work and the positive impact of the group.

Rice. 2.

on the individual. The first two criteria reflect the special tasks facing the groups and related to its work, and the third is general social. It implements positive socio-psychological functions associated with the socialization of an individual through small groups.

Let us consider separately what impact on the success of group activities can have its formal (structural) and content (psychological) features.

It was found that the size of the group does not have a direct and unambiguous effect on the success of its activities. However, increasing or decreasing the number of members depending on the task of the group, its structure and relationships can affect the results of the work.

The psychological consequences of increasing or decreasing the number of group members are different, they can be both positive and negative. Those and others for comparison are presented in table. 1.

Table 1... Consequences of increasing or decreasing the number of group members

The success of the group's work is largely influenced by the task facing it. It should be noted that the group task determines the structure of interaction between group members in the process of their joint work, and this structure, in turn, affects the results of group work.

The composition, that is, the individual composition of the group, determined by the psychological characteristics of its members, affects the life of the group in the same way as its size and the tasks to be solved - through the system of relationships and interactions that characterize the level of socio-psychological development of the group as a collective. the same composition of the group can be psychologically compatible and incompatible, efficient and ineffective, cohesive and disunited.

Highly developed groups with a heterogeneous composition - with significant individual psychological differences in group members - better than homogeneous ones cope with complex problems and tasks. Due to differences in experience, approaches to problem solving, points of view, thinking, perception, memory, imagination, etc., their participants approach the solution of the same problems from different angles. As a result, the number of ideas, options for proposed solutions increases and, consequently, the likelihood of effective solution the task at hand. The heterogeneity of the composition of the group, if it is poorly developed, complicates mutual understanding and the development of a common position. In such conditions, the heterogeneity of the composition of the group leads to contradictions and conflicts in the sphere of personal relationships. For orderly activities of groups, it is advisable to divide them in the process of work into subgroups consisting of people who are psychologically compatible with each other, to ensure coordination of actions and the distribution of responsibilities (division of labor) between subgroups within a given group.

The dependence of the success of the group's activities on the leadership style is also directly related to the level of socio-psychological development. For a group approaching the level of team development, having self-governing bodies, capable of self-organizing activities, collegial forms of leadership that imply a democratic, and in some situations even liberal leadership style will be more effective. In groups at the intermediate level of development, the best results will be obtained by a flexible leadership style that combines elements of directivity, democracy and liberality. In relatively underdeveloped groups, not ready for independent work, incapable of self-organization and having complex, conflicting interpersonal relationships, a directive leadership style with elements of democracy is preferable.

The directive style as a temporary measure can also be useful in moderately developed groups when they work in difficult situations: new task, lack of time, unexpected and significant changes in the composition of the group, requiring a difficult and urgent redistribution of responsibilities, etc. It should be remembered, however, that too frequent, socio-psychologically unjustified use of a directive or authoritarian style of leadership (leadership) in a group has a negative effect on the general mood of people, on their interactions and relationships, and ultimately reduces the effectiveness of group work. This style of leadership limits the independence of group members and is especially bad for solving creative problems that require independent thinking of each member of the group.

Important for successful work groups have established personal relationships within it. Mutual likes and dislikes, the frequency of communication and the emotional coloring of interpersonal contacts, and other forms of relationships can affect the effectiveness of group work in different ways. Good emotional and interpersonal relationships between group members most often contribute to their successful teamwork.

However, in groups of different levels of socio-psychological maturity, these relationships manifest themselves in different ways. With relatively simple tasks that have become habitual for group members, do not require significant joint efforts from them, do not cause them physical fatigue and emotional tension, personal relationships do not significantly affect the results of group work. If the group is faced with unusual things that require complex, coordinated, coordinated actions, great efforts, generating increased emotional tension (especially a stressful situation), then more socially and psychologically more developed groups will show themselves better in such work.

The success of the group's work also depends on the form of organization of its activities. There are several such forms of organization: collective-cooperative, organized on the basis of interaction and interdependence of group members in their work; individual, based on the independent work of each; coordinated, in which everyone works independently, but correlates the process and results of their work with the activities of the rest of the group.

The choice of this or that form of organization of joint work is determined by two factors: the task facing the group, and the level of its socio-psychological maturity. In most cases, with the exception of some types of complex creative work, preference is given to the collective-cooperative form of organizing joint activities. It has the maximum effect, in the best way mobilizes the intellectual, emotional and physical resources of the group members, improves their ability to perceive, process information and make optimal decisions. This same form of work organization is the best at preventing erroneous decisions. With complex creative work, individual and coordinated forms of organizing joint activities are preferable, from time to time combined with a collective-cooperative form of labor organization, for example, when using the brainstorming technique in group work, which will be discussed later.

Personal health, her ability to work, internal emotional condition is largely determined by a set of socio-psychological factors that determine the characteristics of the course of all aspects of an individual's life, social group, society.

Approaches to understanding socio-psychological factors

Definition 1

In the most general view social and psychological factors are understood as the sources of the formation of the culture of personality behavior, latent cultural, social variables that determine the mental makeup of the personality in society at a particular stage of its historical development.

In modern scientific literature, social and psychological factors include multiple personal and social characteristics, including gender, age, marital status, psychological, emotional-volitional, environmental and other features.

Approaches to the classification of socio-psychological factors

The entire set of socio-psychological factors is represented by several groups of conditions, including the following:

1. External factors - shape the social situation in society, in a specific professional industry, institution or organization.
2. Internal, personal factors. This group includes personality traits, the nature of its interaction with the surrounding socio-natural environment, behavioral features, emotional-volitional, motivational spheres, etc.

In turn, external factors are represented by the following groups:

• factors of the national level - have a huge impact on the life of the individual. An individual individual has practically no effect on the specified group of factors;
• sectoral factors - at this level, a person acquires more possibilities reducing the negative impact of negative factors, managing them;
• organizational factors - the conditions for the functioning of a separate social institution, organization.

Personality maturity as a personal socio-psychological factor

One of the most important socio-psychological factors that determine the peculiarities of the implementation of academic, social, professional activity is the criterion of maturity. Achievement of emotional, professional, social maturity of an individual requires not only a long time, but also the work of the individual on himself.

Understanding of maturity as a socio-psychological factor is based on the person's awareness and perception of the system of values, stereotypes adopted in society, as well as conscious adherence to them, full functioning in society.

Social maturity is reflected in the awareness of their role load, the ability and need for the manifestation of their own social activity in the hypostases "I and society", "I am in society."

Professional maturity in modern scientific literature is understood as the awareness of the choice of the sphere of professional activity, the ability to plan one's own professional life, ability to make responsible decisions.

Emotional maturity as a socio-psychological factor is reflected in life optimism, positive emotional mood, tolerance of failures, poise, stability of the emotional sphere.

The decisive sign of all types of maturity is the aesthetic, moral, intellectual, conscious attitude of a person to life, to himself, the ability to be responsible for the content of his own life in front of himself and others.

Remark 1

Thus, the characteristics of the life of an individual, a social group, society as a whole largely depend on a combination of positive and negative socio-psychological factors.

The group, like any organizational entity, is subject to certain patterns in its development. It is important for an organization to be able to measure the effectiveness of the group. The criteria for assessing the effectiveness of the group are approximately the same as are used to assess the results of the employee's work: productivity, job satisfaction, adaptation and training, etc.

When forming a working group, the manager must ensure that its main parameters meet the conditions in which the group will function. The effectiveness of the group's work depends on the validity of decisions regarding the parameters of the group. Most important factors that determine the effectiveness of the group's work are the following:

1. The size of the group. The number of group members is selected based on the conditions of its functioning. Too small a group (2-3 people) reduces the opportunities for specialization and can reduce the quality of labor results, the set of social roles per employee increases, and the intellectual potential of the group decreases.

A dyad is a group of two. There is no third person in the dyad, whose opinion could be consulted or who could help in case of disagreement. As a result, friction often arises between two people (especially those with different psychological personality types). People working in pairs feel or should feel this and avoid categorical judgments and actions that could lead to disagreements. In a dyad, opinions are more often asked than expressed. Dyads tend to avoid disagreement (because they can lead to failure), and the result can be visible coherence even if it doesn't exist (false consensus).

Seeking to avoid disagreement can also be detrimental to the organization, especially if it affects the quality of the couple's work. In case of disagreement, ideas are freely expressed and discussed together. If the two people who are supposed to work together cannot deal with their differences, or if the lack of them negatively affects the success of the task at hand, then most likely in this case the dyad should be abandoned.

The triad, or group of three, presents managers with other challenges. Triads have a very high potential for power struggles, unplanned alliances and general instability. Managers are generally advised to avoid the use of triads, especially when the assigned tasks necessitate frequent interaction between workers, which creates the opportunity to exert pressure on each other. In conditions of confrontation and struggle for leadership, these tasks cannot be solved.

A small group most often consists of at least 4 and no more than 15 people, since in a group larger than 15 people it is more difficult for its members to communicate with each other. With a group of less than 10 people, you can freely communicate with each other, but when the group becomes large, people do not grasp the essence of the problems and take less part in the discussion, express fewer ideas. The concept of a small group is of interest to managers from different points of view, as working groups, project implementation groups, commissions, etc. usually represent a small group.

When forming small groups, managers should avoid an even number of group members, as groups with an even number of members are more likely to get stuck. It is better to create groups with an odd number of members - for example, 5, 7, 9 people, which work much more efficiently.

A large group is a group with more than 15 members. Large groups are organized for short periods of time. For example, a meeting of shareholders, members of a team, various kinds of conferences, etc. As the size of the group increases, the effectiveness of its activities can both increase and decrease. The consequences of increasing the size of the group include a decrease in the possibility of participation, a decrease in the level of cohesion, a decrease in the degree of satisfaction from work, an increase in the formal component of the work process, etc. Large formal groups, as a rule, split into several informal groups, the existence of which requires the manager to make efforts to orient their work towards the set goals.

In general, the effect of group size on its success depends on the task at hand. If adding people to the group increases its effectiveness, then size is a positive factor. If the members of the group work independently, for example, in a machine shop, then more people means better productivity. Group size can also play a positive role when performing work that requires teamwork and collaborative effort.

However, in large groups, the achievement of the set task does not always depend on the most capable members of the group, for example, on the assembly line, the weakest limit the productivity of the previous links and prevent the subsequent ones from working at full strength.

2. Composition of the group. The correct selection of the composition of the group is the most difficult task that a manager solves when forming a group. The selection of participants is carried out based on the nature and level of quality requirements for the tasks to be solved by the group. It should be borne in mind:

Value orientations of employees;

Compatibility of individual psychological characteristics;

Age and sex composition;

Professional and qualification characteristics of employees

Status-role relationships.

Work performed in groups usually requires a variety of knowledge, skills, abilities and personality traits. In this regard, it is generally accepted that groups that are heterogeneous in composition (by gender, age, length of service in the organization) work more efficiently than groups that are relatively homogeneous in composition. At the same time, conflicts, power struggles, and high staff turnover can occur in groups of different composition. However, with skillful management, these problems are successfully overcome.

By status in a group, we mean the position or rank that is assigned to one or another member of this group by other members of the group. Status can also be formal (for example, the winner of the "Best in Profession" competition) and informal (respect corresponding to merit, knowledge, etc.).

Almost every group has its own formal leader, which may be the head of the department, the project manager, the chairman of the committee, the president of the association, etc. Leaders largely determine the moral climate, relationships in the team and, ultimately, the effectiveness of its work.

Each member of the group is usually assigned certain roles, i.e. patterns of behavior expected from him in accordance with the place in the group that he occupies. Everyone has to play not one, but several roles. For example, a personnel manager can simultaneously be the chairman of the labor dispute resolution commission, a member of the dismissal commission work force from the enterprise, vice-president of the association of specialists personnel services... In some cases, these roles may turn out to be incompatible and contradict one another. If the behavior of an employee conflicts with what others expect of him, a role conflict arises.

In both formal and informal groups, it is important to identify the most typical roles that are most often used in brainstorming, business meetings and meetings. These include the following roles:

Organizer. Organizes discussion of the problem, establishes communication between members, leads the decision-making process, settles conflicts. Group leader. A sanguine person or phlegmatic person with a high level of intelligence, who has received recognition in the group.

Idea's generator. He puts forward new ideas, explains them, identifies alternatives for making decisions, actively participates in their discussion. A sanguine person or a choleric person with a high level of intelligence, having encyclopedic knowledge

Critic. Critically examines ideas, gives arguments "against", actively seeks out the shortcomings of the problem statement, goals, decision criteria. Pessimist of average intelligence, sometimes in opposition to the group

Expert. Identifies the "seeds of truth" in the issues discussed, argues for and against, and orientates the group in the right direction. An optimist with average or high intelligence, with extensive experience and work experience.

Messenger. Provides informational links with other groups, delivers fresh information (data and rumors), connects the leader with all team members and communicates orders. Choleric person with an average level of intelligence, mobile, sociable, without complexes, has good visual and auditory memory

Clerk. Responsible for clerical work, sometimes the group's cashier. Records the results of the discussion of the problem and prepares documentation for the leader. A phlegmatic or choleric person with average or low intelligence, has a good memory and handwriting.

The typical distribution of roles in the group provides the possibility of concrete and active participation of each member of the group in solving the tasks set by the leader and binds the members of the group into a close-knit and efficient team. Otherwise, the group works ineffectively or breaks up into microgroups, where new leaders create conditions for their more productive work.

3. Group norms. Group norms are expressed in standard rules that define the boundaries of the behavior of group members. Formal norms are determined by management. In informal groups, norms provide for the interests of the participants in the interaction. They can be either positive, corresponding to the formal norms of the organization (requirements for disciplinary norms, quality of work), and negative, going against the requirements of formal interaction (low quality of work, resistance to change). Acceptance or non-acceptance by a person of the norms in force in the group is a condition for his entry into the group. Norms can be formalized in certain documents - standards, regulations and procedures. However, most of the norms that guide groups are informal.

4. Psychological climate in the group. A favorable psychological climate in a group is determined by a number of factors: the psychological compatibility of its members, value orientation, the level of cohesion of employees, and the conflict of the group. Diagnostics of the psychological climate should be carried out systematically by the organization's specialists.

Federal agency of Education

Department of Construction Organization, Expertise and Real Estate Management

Abstract on the topic:

"Socio-psychological factors affecting performance"

Completed: student *** gr

Checked:

Voronezh 2010

1. Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………… 3

2. Working capacity …………………………………………………………………… ... 4

3. Working conditions ………………………………………………………………………… ... 5

4. Social factors ………………………………………………………………… ... 7

4.1. Social groups ………………………………………………………… ... 7

4.2. The process of formation and development of the labor collective ......................................................................... 10

4.3. Social role …………………………………………………………… .13

4.4. Socio-psychological portrait of the team ………………………… ..15

4.5. Leadership ……………………………………………………………………… 18

5. Psychological factors …………………………………………………………… ..22

5.1 Personal characteristics ……………………………………………………… ..22

5.2. Impact on communication partners ………………………………………… .25

6. Motivation of the team ………………………………………………………………… .27

7. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………… 32

8. List of used literature ………………………………………………… .. 33

Introduction.

V modern conditions management the main goal of the activities of enterprises is to make a profit in compliance with the requirements of the legislation. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to take into account all groups of factors that can influence the effectiveness of the team. Team is one of the fundamental factors.

It is known that the team is more than just a logical ordering of workers performing interrelated tasks. Management theorists and practitioners argue that the collective is also social system where individuals and formal and informal groups interact. And labor productivity depends on the psychological climate, on the mood of each employee.

With the correct arrangement of human resources in the organization, with the correct resolution of conflict situations, a certain breakthrough, a synergistic effect occurs. The organization becomes more than the sum of its components. This new system becomes much more resistant to external influences, but easily collapses if this unity of elements is not maintained.

In management science, there are quite perfect socio-psychological methods with which you can achieve the desired effect.

Social and psychological methods of management are understood as specific techniques and methods of influencing the process of formation and development of the team itself and individual workers... There are two methods: social (aimed at the collective as a whole), and psychological (aimed at individuals within the collective). They imply the introduction of various sociological and psychological procedures in management practice.

Social psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of activity people in the context of interaction in social groups. The main problems of social psychology are the following: patterns of communication and interaction of people, the activities of large (nation, classes) and small social groups, socialization of the individual and the development of social attitudes. Hence the socio-psychological factors - the factors influencing the activities of people in the conditions of interaction in social groups.

In this paper, we will consider the main socio-psychological factors affecting the effectiveness of the organization.

One of the fundamental factors determining high labor productivity and, as a consequence, the successful operation of the enterprise as a whole, is working capacity.

The concept of working capacity is psychophysiological, it differs from the concept of working capacity, which reflects the physical state of health.

Efficiency is expressed in levels of social activity - from zero to relative activity, when a person seeks to continue an available labor or social form of activity, leads active image life.

The following levels are distinguished:

General level: human potential;

Current state: the real level of performance, changing depending on the phases of its dynamics, as well as various external and internal factors.

When characterizing the general level of working capacity, the standard is usually taken as the average statistical data of adult healthy men with normal health and well-being in a favorable phase of the dynamics of working capacity - 2-3 hours after the start of the shift, on day 2-3 of the weekly cycle.

There are five groups of factors affecting performance:

1st group - due to the characteristics of the growing organism, problems of acceleration; functional resources lag behind morphological ones, therefore, the level of working capacity of adolescents and young men is lower than those of adults;

2nd group - due to the age characteristics of the elderly; age-related decrease in the functional abilities of the body begins after 45 years;

3rd group - associated with the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the female body, causing a decrease in the level of women's performance in comparison with the standard (especially during physical labor);

4th group - associated with the individual characteristics of the body (constitutional traits, fitness). It refers to the state of the physiological norm and therefore the decrease in labor opportunities in this case is moderate and does not lead to a loss of working capacity;

5th group - pathological changes in the body - both chronic (permanent decrease in performance) and acute (temporary impairment of performance).

Working conditions- This is a set of environmental factors that affect the performance and health of a person in the labor process.

A worker in the production environment is influenced by a large number of external factors, which, by their origin, can be divided into two groups. The first includes factors that do not depend on the characteristics of production, among them geographic and climatic, which are due to the geographical area and climatic zone of the location of the enterprise, and socio-economic. The latter depend on the socio-economic structure of society and determine the position of the worker in society as a whole. They find their expression in labor legislation, in the aggregate of social benefits and guarantees.

The second group includes factors that depend on the characteristics of production and its team. These factors are formed, on the one hand, under the influence of the characteristics of technology, technology, economics and organization of production (production and technical), and, on the other hand, under the influence of the characteristics of the work collective (socio-psychological).

The group of production and technical factors is the most extensive. It includes:

technical and technological factors - features of technology and technology, the level of mechanization and automation of labor, the degree of equipping of workplaces, the mode of work and rest. Under the influence of these factors, the physical severity of labor is formed, characterized by the volume of physical work and static load per shift, and neuropsychic tension, determined by the volume of processed information, the intensity of attention, the intensity of the analytical and mental activity, the degree of monotony of labor, the pace of work;

sanitary and hygienic factors - temperature, humidity, air velocity in the working room; levels of noise, vibration, dustiness, gas content, radiation; illumination, contact of parts of the worker's body with water, engine oil, toxic substances, the general condition of production facilities;

safety factors that guarantee the protection of workers from mechanical damage, electric shock, from chemical and radiation pollution;

engineering and psychological factors - comfort on workplaces, perfection of the design and layout of equipment, controls and means of monitoring the progress of the technological process, ease of maintenance of machines and mechanisms;

aesthetic factors - architectural and planning solutions for the interior and exterior, aesthetically expressive form and color of labor tools, overalls, appropriate design of recreation areas, etc.;

household factors - organization of intra-shift meals for workers; the presence and condition of cabins, washstands, showers, toilets; organization of laundry, dry cleaning and repair of workwear, cleaning of premises and territory, etc.

Socio-psychological factors - the socio-demographic structure of the team, the set of interests, value orientations of employees, the style of leadership in departments and at the enterprise as a whole, the scale and nature of the activities of public organizations. These factors form the moral and psychological climate in the team.

Thus, a person and his performance is influenced by a large and complex set of factors that must be taken into account in order to create the most favorable environment for highly productive work, which is one of the tasks of his organization.

A necessary component of the organization of labor is its planning and accounting. Labor planning as establishing the proportions of labor, its productivity, the number of personnel, the wage bill for the implementation of the production program is part of the general system that ensures the functioning of labor. Accounting for labor is a necessary prerequisite for establishing the performance of labor, its payment and material incentives.

Issues of payment and material incentives for workers are also an integral part of the organization of work.

An efficient work organization cannot be achieved without strict adherence to established rules and procedures in production, i.e. without labor discipline.

In practice, they distinguish between labor, production, technological, financial, contractual and other disciplines. This diversity is determined by the fact that different rules, norms, requirements are established by different bodies and departments, which interpret compliance with the rules established by them as an appropriate discipline. So, compliance by employees with the rules of the internal labor schedule (timely start and end of the working day, lunch and rest breaks), the norms of intra-production behavior refers to labor discipline. Exact fulfillment of all technology requirements for each production process constitutes a technological discipline. Timely and accurate implementation of production tasks, fulfillment of job descriptions, respect for equipment, tools, tooling, raw materials and materials, observance of labor protection rules, safety regulations, industrial sanitation, fire safety constitute production discipline. The concept of labor discipline combines the listed types of disciplines and manifests itself in the conscious performance of employees of their official duties.

The organization of labor at the enterprise is supported by the labor activity and creative initiative of the workers. The development and deepening of democracy in society and in production during the implementation of reforms of the political system and economy in the country, the increase in the economic independence of enterprises create a favorable environment for increasing labor activity and creative initiative of workers, and through these most important qualities of workers affect the growth of the level of labor organization and production efficiency ...

Consider social factors.

To begin with, we introduce the concept social group.

A group is a really existing formation in which people are gathered together, united by some common feature, a kind of joint activity, or placed in some identical conditions, circumstances, in a certain way they realize their belonging to this formation.

Social group parameters

The elementary parameters of any group include: the composition of the group (or its composition), the structure of the group, group processes, group norms and values, the system of sanctions. Each of these parameters can take on completely different meanings depending on the type of group being studied. So, for example, the composition of a group can be described in different ways depending on whether in each case, for example, age, professional or social characteristics of the group members are significant. In other words, we immediately set a certain set of parameters to characterize the composition of the group, depending on the type of activity with which this group is associated. Naturally, the characteristics of large and small social groups differ especially strongly, and they should be studied separately.

The same can be said for the structure of the group. There are several rather formal signs of the structure of a group, which, however, are revealed mainly in the study of small groups: the structure of preferences, the structure of "power", the structure of communications.

Group structure

However, if we consistently consider the group as a subject of activity, then its structure must be approached accordingly. A very significant characteristic is the emotional structure of the group - the structure of interpersonal relations, as well as its connection with the functional structure of group activity. In social psychology, the relationship between these two structures is often viewed as the relationship between "informal" and "formal" relationships.

An important component of characterizing the position of an individual in a group is the system of “group expectations”. This term denotes the simple fact that every member of the group not only performs his functions in it, but is also necessarily perceived and appreciated by others. In particular, this refers to the fact that each position, as well as each role, is expected to perform certain functions, and not only a simple list of them, but also the quality of performance of these functions. The group, through a system of expected patterns of behavior corresponding to each role, in a certain way controls the activities of its members. In some cases, there may be a mismatch between the expectations that the group has regarding any of its members, and its real behavior, the real way of fulfilling its role. In order for this system of expectations to be somehow defined, there are two more extremely important formations in the group: group norms and group sanctions.

Group norms

All group norms are social norms, i.e. represent “institutions, models, standards of what should be, from the point of view of society as a whole and social groups and their members. behavior ".

In a narrower sense, group norms are certain rules that are developed by a group, adopted by it, and which the behavior of its members must obey in order for their joint activity to be possible. The norms thus fulfill a regulatory function in relation to this activity. Group norms are associated with values, since any rules can be formulated only on the basis of the acceptance or rejection of some socially significant phenomena. The values ​​of each group are formed on the basis of the development of a certain attitude towards social phenomena, dictated by the place of this group in the system of social relations, its experience in organizing certain activities.

Although the problem of values ​​is fully investigated in sociology, it is extremely important for social psychology to be guided by some facts established in sociology. The most important of them is the different significance of different kinds of values ​​for group life, their different correlation with the values ​​of society. When it comes to relatively general and abstract concepts, for example, about good, evil, happiness, etc., then we can say that at this level values ​​are common to all social groups and that they can be considered as the values ​​of society. However, with the transition to the assessment of more specific social phenomena, for example, such as labor, education, culture, groups begin to differ in the accepted assessments. The values ​​of various social groups may not coincide with each other, and in this case it is difficult to talk about the values ​​of society. The specificity of the attitude towards each and such values ​​is determined by the place of the social group in the system of social relations. Norms as rules governing the behavior and activities of group members, naturally, are based precisely on group values, although the rules of everyday behavior may not carry any special specificity of the group. Group norms thus include both generally valid norms and specific ones, developed by this particular group. All of them, taken together, act as an important factor in the regulation of social behavior, ensuring the ordering of the position of various groups in the social structure of society. The concreteness of the analysis can be ensured only when the ratio of these two types of norms in the life of each group, and in a specific type of society, is revealed.

A formal approach to the analysis of group norms, when in experimental studies only the mechanism of acceptance or rejection of group norms by an individual is clarified, but not their content, determined by the specifics of activity, is clearly insufficient. It is possible to understand the relationship of an individual with a group only if it is revealed which norms of the group he accepts and which he rejects, and why he does so. All this takes on special significance when there is a mismatch between the norms and values ​​of the group and society, when the group begins to focus on values ​​that do not coincide with the norms of society.

An important problem is the measure of acceptance of norms by each member of the group: how is the acceptance of group norms by an individual carried out, how much each of them deviates from the observance of these norms, how social and “personal” norms relate. One of the functions of social (including group) norms consists precisely in the fact that through them the demands of society "are addressed and presented to a person as a person and a member of a particular group, community, society." This requires an analysis of sanctions - the mechanisms by which a group “returns” its member to the path of compliance. Sanctions can be of two types: encouraging and prohibitive, positive and negative. The sanctions system is not intended to compensate for non-compliance, but to enforce compliance. The study of sanctions makes sense only if specific groups are analyzed, since the content of sanctions is correlated with the content of norms, and the latter are determined by the properties of the group.

Thus, the considered set of concepts, with the help of which the socio-psychological description of the group is carried out, is only a certain conceptual grid.

Types of social groups

A social group, as indicated in the “Sociological Encyclopedic Dictionary” (Moscow, 1998), is “a set of individuals united by any common feature: common spatial and temporal being, activity, economic, demographic, psychological and other characteristics.” Sociology distinguishes large and small groups.

“A small group is understood as a small group, whose members are united by common social activities and are in direct personal communication, which is the basis for the emergence of emotional relationships, group norms and group processes”

The group must have own values, i.e. something should act as the center of unification (symbol, slogan, idea, etc.). This leads to the development in the group of a specific sense of community, which is expressed in the word "we". The emerging awareness of "we" acts as a psychic connection, which contributes to the unification of the members of this group and is the basis of the community of action and solidarity of the group.

collective is a special case of a small group.

A particular manifestation of a small group is a collective.

The process of formation and development of the labor collective

The social and economic efficiency of labor, other things being equal, is in direct proportion to the level of team cohesion.

Team cohesion means the unity of behavior of its members, based on common interests, value orientations, norms, goals and actions to achieve them. Cohesion is the most important sociological characteristic of a team. In essence, it is similar to the economic characteristics of his production activity - labor productivity. In addition, members of a close-knit team, as a rule, are in no hurry to leave it, i.e. reduced labor turnover.

In terms of its orientation, the cohesion of the team can be positive (functional), i.e. focused on the goals and objectives of his labor activity and negative (dysfunctional), aimed at achieving goals that contradict public goals, the goals of production activities.

The key point in creating a close-knit team is the selection of people based on the coincidence of their life values ​​in relation to professional activity and moral aspects of human life.

Stages of team building

There are three stages of rallying the labor collective, each of which corresponds to a certain level of its development.

First stage- orientation, which corresponds to a low level of development of the team - the stage of formation. This stage is characterized by the fact that a simple association of people is transformed into a group with common goals and objectives, ideological orientation. Each member of the team is oriented in a new team for him. It can be purposeful orientation and self-orientation. Purposeful orientation is carried out by the manager through the selection and placement of personnel, detailed information about the goals and objectives, plans and conditions of activity. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account how new employees can fit into the formed team, work well together. It is important to correctly place workers in the workplace. If people who sympathize with each other find themselves in neighboring, technologically interconnected places, this improves their mood, increases work and creative activity.

Everyone has their own personal idea about workmates, about how they would like to see their team. Therefore, purposeful orientation is always complemented by self-orientation.

If a goal-oriented orientation prevails in a team, then the common goal for most of the team members is transformed into their internal need and the orientation stage is relatively quickly replaced by the next one.

Second stage- mutually adaptive, which is the formation of uniform attitudes of behavior of team members. These attitudes can be formed in two ways: under the purposeful educational influence of the leader and through self-adaptation, as a result of imitation and identification.

Imitation consists in the fact that a person unconsciously adopts the ways of behavior of others, their views and reactions to certain situations. This is the least controlled way of forming attitudes, which does not always lead to positive results.

Identification - a person's conscious adherence to any patterns, norms and standards of behavior, identification (identification) with them of the rules of his own behavior. In this case, a person is already reflecting on the behavior of a particular person and consciously determines whether he should act in the same way in a similar situation or in a different way.

The mutually adaptive stage corresponds to the average level of development of the team, characterized by the creation of its asset (active group).

Third stage- a close-knit, or stage of consolidation, of a team, the stage of its maturity. The leader acts here not as an external force, but as a person who most fully embodies the goals of the team. In such a team, relations of mutual assistance and cooperation prevail.

Depending on the degree of cohesion, three types of collectives are distinguished:

close-knit, or consolidated, which is characterized by the close relationship of its members, solidarity and friendship, constant mutual assistance. The composition of such a team is relatively stable. Such a team has, as a rule, high performance indicators, good labor discipline, high activity of workers;

dismembered (weakly united), which consists of a number of unfriendly social and psychological groups that have their own leaders. Group indicators, the level of industrial discipline, value orientations, the activity of such groups are very different;

disunited (conflict) - in essence a formal collective, in which everyone is on his own, personal friendly contacts between its members are absent, they are connected by purely official relations. In such teams, conflicts often arise, there is a high turnover of personnel.

It should be borne in mind that the process of rallying and developing the workforce is a reversible process. Under certain circumstances, it can stop and even turn into a process opposite to itself - into a process of disintegration. The reason for this may be a change in the leader or the composition of the team, the goals of its activities, the level of requirements, or any other changes in the labor situation.

Managing the process of cohesion of the workforce is carried out by influencing the factors that determine cohesion.

The general (external) factors include the nature of social relations, the level of development of scientific and technological progress, the peculiarities of the mechanism of economic activity, and the specific (internal) ones - the level of organization and management of production in the collective itself, its socio-psychological climate, personal composition.

Relationships in a team, its cohesion largely depend on what the team members themselves are, what are their personal qualities and the culture of communication, manifested in the degree of emotional warmth, sympathy or antipathy. The labor collective is formed from individual workers endowed with different mental properties with different social characteristics. In other words, members of the labor collective are representatives of different temperaments, age and gender and ethnic groups, have different habits, views, interests, which are essentially a commonality or difference in their social positions.

The predominance of certain personal qualities among members of the team affects the relationships that develop within the team, the nature of its mental attitude, gives it a certain feature that can facilitate or interfere with its cohesion. Negative character traits especially strongly hinder team building: resentment, envy, painful pride.

Social role

Leadership style plays an important role in the formation and cohesion of the team. The leader in his daily activities must take into account that his employees have different characters, socio-psychological qualities, various general educational and special training. This requires him to study their character, the ability to choose ways of influencing a person, depending on character traits, specific activities, social characteristics. Not every specialist can be a good leader.

In this regard, it becomes especially relevant to determine the degree of correspondence of the personal and business qualities of managers to the functional requirements.

In the process of team building, the communication process plays a significant role.

Communication- the need of a person, the most important condition for his labor activity, the force that organizes and unites the team.

Communication as a means of rallying the work collective performs cognitive, communicative and regulatory functions.

The cognitive function is that the members of a team or group, communicating, exchange information about themselves, their comrades, ways and methods of solving the tasks assigned to them. In the process of such an exchange, each of the team members has the opportunity to learn more effective techniques and methods of work, to correlate their individual style of performing it with the general one and to do their work in such a way that it corresponds to the rules and methods adopted in this team. And this forms the labor unity necessary for the normal functioning of the collective.

The communicative function is that the members of the team, communicating, form their own and the general collective emotional state. Emotions are a person's response to certain irritations. In the process of communication, various types of emotions are born. Communication can be accompanied by the effect of sympathy, complicity, mutual understanding and contribute to the emotional release of a person's state, but it can also create a certain level of emotional tension, a psychological barrier of bias, rejection, alienation.

The regulatory function is manifested in the influence of team members on their workmates, on their behavior, actions, activity, and the system of value orientations. It regulates the interactions of team members and forms relationships more vertically (in the manager-subordinate system). The leader plays an important role in shaping these relationships. The effectiveness of its impact on the team largely depends on the organization of communication with subordinates. The leader must be impartial, equally exacting and demanding with all subordinates. But exactingness works when it is organizationally thought out, psychologically grounded and expressed in a form that corresponds to moral norms. A rude command, shouting not only does not contribute to the effective solution of common affairs, the cohesion of the team, but create more complications, irritate and disunite its members.

However, the problem of forming relationships in a team, its cohesion should be considered not only through the system of relations between the leader and the subordinate, but also the subordinate-leader. Subordinates know what a leader should be like and how he should build his relations with his subordinates: observe certain rules of communication, take into account the individual characteristics of subordinates, their state of health, mood, etc. This fully applies to subordinates. Often, the leader's exactingness to the subordinate is perceived by the latter as cruelty, callousness, nit-picking.

The implementation of the considered functions forms in the team a certain system of relations, which are divided into formal(business, official) and informal(personal, informal). Formal relationships develop between people when they fulfill certain production roles. They reflect the functional links between officials, employees of various categories and qualifications, managers and subordinates, they are based on norms, standards, rights and responsibilities. The content of formal relations is mutual exactingness, responsibility, comradely cooperation, and mutual assistance.

In each work collective, along with formal relations, there are informal relations, the microstructure of the collective. They also arise with functional connections between team members, but on the basis of their individual and personal qualities and are expressed in the assessment of these qualities. These relationships can arise between friends and foes, buddies and ill-wishers, both over formal and informal functions. Informal relationships are based on attraction and rejection, attraction and repulsion, likes and dislikes.

Formal and informal relationships are closely related and interact. Formal relationships can give rise to informal ones, slow down or accelerate the process of their development, give it a certain direction and social character. Informal relations, in turn, can actively influence formal ones, acquire a stable character and develop into formal ones. They can complement, concretize, contribute to the goals of formal relations, they can be indifferent, indifferent to them, or they can contradict these goals.

It is very important that informal relationships not only do not contradict the formal ones, but serve as their natural complement, and in this much depends on the team leader. The leader is a formal leader, and his subordinates can unite into informal groups, which will have their own informal leaders. And if the leader has enough common sense and experience, then he will try to win the trust of the informal leader and through him influence the behavior of the members of the informal group.

Socio-psychological portrait of the team

The cohesion of the labor collective depends on the socio-psychological climate that characterizes the social face of the collective, its production potential.

The quality of the socio-psychological climate in the team determines the leader's attitude to society as a whole, to his organization and to each person individually. If, in his understanding, a person is represented as a resource, raw material and production base, then such an approach will not give the desired result, in the management process there will be a bias and deficiency or recalculation of resources to perform a specific task.

Under socio-psychological climate labor collective should be understood as a system of social - psychological relations, reflecting the subjective integration of individual workers and social groups for the implementation of common production goals. This is the internal state of the team, formed as a result of the joint activities of its members, their interpersonal interactions. The socio-psychological climate depends on the style of the team's activity and the attitude of the team members to it, the peculiarities of their perception of each other (assessments, opinions, responses to words and actions), mutually experienced feelings (likes, dislikes, empathy, sympathy), psychological unity (common needs , interests, tastes, value orientations, the level of conflict, the nature of criticism and self-criticism), etc.

The influence of the socio-psychological climate on the cohesion and development of the team can be twofold - stimulating and restraining, which is the basis for its differentiation into favorable (healthy) and unfavorable (unhealthy).

The following characteristics can serve as criteria for a favorable socio-psychological climate:

At first, at the level of collective consciousness:

a positive assessment of their production activities;

optimistic mood prevailing in the life of the team;

Secondly, at the level of behavior:

conscientious, proactive attitude of team members to their duties;

low level of conflict in interpersonal relationships;

lack or insignificant staff turnover.

In collectives where the importance of the socio-psychological climate is underestimated, tensions develop between people, manifested in frequent conflicts.

Creation of a favorable psychological climate in the team

Team leadership is a combination of science and art. From the point of view of American management, the essence of leadership is to do the work not with your own hands, but with others. In fact, an even more difficult task is to make not only other people's hands work, but also other people's heads. Therefore, it is unreasonable to rely only on yourself, considering yourself to be omniscient and able to do everything. You should never do yourself what subordinates can and should do (except in cases of personal example)

The fulfillment of each task must be monitored and evaluated (forms of control must not be totalitarian); lack of control can lead the employee to think that the work he is doing is unnecessary. There is no need to turn control into petty tutelage.

If the employee's independent solution to the problem does not in principle contradict the point of view of management, there is no need to shackle the employee's initiative and to dispute over trifles.

Every achievement of the employee and his initiative must be immediately noted. You can thank a subordinate in the presence of other employees. A person is encouraged by a positive assessment of his actions and upset if they do not notice and do not appreciate success in work.

When an employee turns out to be more talented and more successful than his manager in something, this is not something negative; the good reputation of subordinates is praise and credit to the leader.

Not affectionately making remarks to a subordinate who has committed a minor offense in the presence of others, employees or subordinates; humiliating a person is not the best way to educate.

There is no point in criticizing people. It will be more constructive to criticize their mistakes, indicating from which shortcomings such mistakes can occur. And all the more, there is no need to point out these shortcomings in a person - he must draw all the conclusions himself.

In a conflict situation, the use of harsh, offensive words will be disastrous (if the situation can be resolved without them).

Very important: the spark of respect and even more sympathy planted by the leader in the soul of a subordinate is able to charge him for creative selfless work, regardless of time.

Exact formulation of your thoughts: professional literacy, managerial competence, general culture are manifested in the manner of speaking. An easily outlined and formulated thought disposes to communication, eliminates the potential for conflict caused by misunderstanding.

A correctly made remark eliminates unnecessary irritation. Sometimes it is helpful to express comments in the form of a question: "Do you think there is a mistake here?" or "How do you think ..."

The ability of a leader to defend the interests of the entire team and each of the subordinates is a good means of gaining authority and uniting employees into a single group.

Gullibility and distrust are the most important personality traits on which the socio-psychological climate in the team depends. Excessive, excessive gullibility distinguishes inexperienced, easily injured people. They find it difficult to be good leaders. But the worst of all is suspicion of everyone. The manager's mistrust almost always gives rise to the mistrust of subordinates. Showing distrust of people, a person almost always limits the possibility of mutual understanding, and hence the effectiveness of collective activity.

Leadership

The socio-psychological structure of the team ends with the nomination of a leader.

Leadership is one of the socio-psychological factors affecting performance. Leadership potential is a set of psychological qualities that correspond to the needs of the group and are most useful for resolving the problem situation in which this group has found itself. Leadership - primacy in stimulating, planning and organizing group activity. Behind the ability to lead are such integral characteristics as "attitude to danger", "managerial ability" and high "personal activity".

Dangerous attitudes are understood as being highly effective in dealing with stress, as well as sensitivity to potential danger and fearlessness.

Actions in stressful conditions, the most appropriate to the role of a true leader, are in his primacy of protecting the group, in organizing group actions, in attacking actions, in choosing the strategy and tactics of the group's behavior. Sensitivity is the leader's ability to anticipate the possibility of stressful circumstances and the options for their development. Fearlessness conventionally denotes a quality that allows a leader to withstand threats directed at him for the longest time and to recover faster from defeats.

In the structure of managerial abilities, the leading functions are the functions of suppressing intragroup aggressiveness (conflict) and providing support to weak members of the group, planning the upcoming actions of the group.

A leader's high personal activity includes a wide range of private manifestations - from initiative and contact to physical mobility and a tendency to form temporary alliances with various members of the group.

Psychoanalysts have identified ten types of leadership

1. "Sovereign" or "patriarchal ruler". A leader in the image of a strict but beloved father, he is able to suppress or suppress negative emotions and instill confidence in people. He is promoted on the basis of love and revered.

2. "Leader". In it, people see the expression, the concentration of their desires, corresponding to a certain group standard. The personality of the leader is the bearer of these standards. They try to imitate him in the group.

3. "Tyrant". He becomes a leader because he inspires others with a sense of obedience and unaccountable fear, he is considered the strongest. A tyrant leader is a dominant, authoritarian personality, he is usually feared and obeyed.

4. "Organizer". It acts for the members of the group as a force to maintain the "I-concept" and satisfy the needs of everyone, relieves feelings of guilt and anxiety. Such a leader unites people, he is respected.

5. "Seducer". A person becomes a leader by playing on the weaknesses of others. He acts as a "magical force", giving an outlet to the suppressed emotions of other people, prevents conflicts, relieves tension. Such a leader is adored and often overlooked for all his shortcomings.

6. "Hero". Sacrifices himself for the sake of others; this type manifests itself especially in situations of group protest - thanks to his courage, others are guided by him, see in him a standard of justice. The hero-leader draws people along with him.

7. "Bad example". Acts as a source of contagion for a conflict-free person, emotionally infects others.

8. "Idol". Attracts, attracts, positively infects the environment, he is loved, idolized and idealized.

9. "Outcast".

10. "Scapegoat".

There is a difference between "Formal" leadership - when the influence comes from the official position in the organization, and "Informal" leadership - when influence comes from the recognition by others of the personal superiority of the leader. In most situations, of course, these two influences are intertwined to a greater or lesser extent.

A formally appointed unit leader has the advantage of gaining leadership positions in a group and is therefore more likely to be recognized as a leader than anyone else. However, his status in the organization and the fact that he is appointed "from outside" put him in a position somewhat different from that of informal natural leaders. First of all, the desire to move up the career ladder prompts him to identify himself with larger divisions of the organization, rather than with a group of his subordinates. He may believe that emotional attachment to any work group should not serve as a brake on him on this path, and therefore identifying himself with the leadership of the organization is a source of satisfying his personal ambitions. But if he knows that he will not rise higher, and does not particularly strive for this, often such a leader decisively identifies himself with his subordinates and does everything in his power to protect their interests.

Formal leaders first of all determine how and in what ways to achieve the goal set, as a rule, by other people, organize and direct the work of subordinates in accordance with detailed plans, while taking a passive position. They build their interaction with others on the basis of a clear regulation of rights and obligations, try not to go beyond them, seeing themselves and others as members of one organization in which a certain order and discipline should prevail.

In contrast, informal leaders determine which goals to strive for, formulating them independently, without going into unnecessary details. Their followers are those who share their views and are willing to follow them, despite the difficulties, and the leaders find themselves in the role of inspirers as opposed to managers who ensure the achievement of goals through reward or punishment. Unlike formal leaders, informal leaders are not controlled by others, but build relationships with followers on trust in them.

To summarize what has been said, we will use the table, which is based on the materials of O. Vikhansky and A. Naumov.

In a team, the general level of which is below average, the informal leader most often acts as an expert-specialist on any issues or an emotional center, can cheer, sympathize, and help. In a team with a high level of development, he is primarily an intellectual center, a source of ideas, a consultant on the most difficult problems. And in both cases, he is the integrator of the collective, the initiator and organizer of its active actions, the model with which the rest check their thoughts and actions.

Since the informal leader reflects the interests of the collective, he is a kind of controller, making sure that the specific actions of each of its members do not contradict the general interests, do not undermine the unity of the group. In necessary cases, he can enter into a conflict with the administration in this regard, authorizing, even in the field of production activities, only those decisions that do not contradict the interests of the team he represents. It is practically impossible to fight this phenomenon, because pressure on the leader only causes even greater cohesion of the team and its opposition to the administration.

The traditional strategy in the use of socio-psychological reserves (potentials) is to develop as fully as possible positive phenomena (favorable socio-psychological climate, orientation towards positive values, interpersonal compatibility, cohesion, etc.) and to neutralize or get rid of clearly negative phenomena (psychological tension, intense conflicts, group isolation, etc.).

The effectiveness of human interaction depends on communicative competence (communication competence), i.e. the ability to establish and maintain the necessary contacts with people. Communicative competence includes a system of knowledge and skills (techniques) that ensure the successful course of a person's communicative processes in various communication situations. In addition, the effectiveness of communication depends on what is called communication skills (qualities).

The effectiveness of communication is determined by many factors. Some of them are manageable and therefore can be specially organized so that the goal of communication is most likely to be achieved. Other factors are uncontrollable, at least at the time of communication, and therefore should only be taken into account when building strategies and tactics of communication.

External factors of communication include: the situation in which communication takes place, the environment of communication, the personality of the communication partner, the social and psychological characteristics of the team, the presence of a common thesaurus among communication partners.

The situation of communication largely determines both the nature and effectiveness of communication. It is one thing to communicate in a calm situation, it is another thing to communicate in a tense or conflict situation. The effectiveness of communication largely depends on the environment in which it takes place. At the same time, depending on the goals of communication, the situation should change. The characteristics of the team also affect the effectiveness of communication. After all, each of its members is a representative of a group. If the group is socially mature, then the leader's influence is more effective. Socially, the status of subordinates in relation to the leader is lower, which gives the process of communication between them a subordinate coloration. The leader has the right not only to persuade, but also to order, command, and coercion. A person holding a high status should see in a subordinate, first of all, a person who requires respect and attention to himself.

The effectiveness of communication depends on the psychological attitudes of people, their age and sex characteristics, moral and political appearance (beliefs, worldview, ideals, attitude to nature, to work, learning, culture, to other people and to oneself), the level of intellectual development , interests, inclinations, the degree of suggestibility, sociability, i.e. ease of making contact with others.

Now consider psychological factors , i.e. those factors that have a direct impact on each person, on his performance.

These are the personality traits that affect both the goals and the communication process and its effectiveness. Some of them contribute to successful communication (extroversion, empathy, tolerance, mobility), others make it difficult (introversion, imperiousness, conflict, aggressiveness, shyness, timidity, rigidity).

Extraversion and introversion- characteristic of typical differences between people, the extreme poles of which correspond to the predominant orientation of a person either to the world of external objects (for extroverts), or on his own subjective world (for introverts).

The division of people into types of extroverts and introverts is carried out taking into account such qualities as sociability, talkativeness, ambition, assertiveness, activity and a number of others.

Introverts are shy, shy, prone to solitude, preferring books to communicating with people. They are reserved, they approach only a few, therefore they have few friends, but are devoted to them. Extroverts, on the other hand, are open, courteous, affable, sociable, resourceful in conversation, have many friends, tend to verbal communication, do not like solitary reading or study. They are sociable, talkative, ambitious, assertive and active.

Introverts are slow to bond with difficulty getting into the alien world of other people's emotions. They find it difficult to learn adequate behavioral forms and therefore often seem "awkward". Their subjective point of view may be stronger than the objective situation.

Empathy - such a spiritual unity of individuals, when one person is so imbued with the experiences of another that he is temporarily identified with him, as if dissolving in him. This emotional feature of a person plays a large role in communication between people, in their perception of each other, in establishing mutual understanding. The emotion of sadness plays an important role in the formation and development of empathy. The memory of a sad event that happened to a loved one evokes pity and compassion for him, a desire to help.

Imperiousness- a personality trait, a person's desire for power over other people. Striving for superiority, social power compensates for the natural shortcomings of people experiencing a complex of not usefulness. The desire for power is expressed by the TV tendency to control the social environment, in the ability to reward and punish people, to compel them to perform certain actions against their wishes, to control their actions. The manifestation of the "power motive" as a personal disposition lies in the tendency to attract the attention of others, to stand out, to attract supporters who are rapidly and easily influenced by the power-hungry and who recognize him as their leader. Power-lovers strive to occupy leadership positions, but they do not feel very well in group activities, when they are forced to follow the same rules of behavior for everyone, and even more so to obey others.

There is no need to explain the negative role of conflict and aggressiveness for the process of communication, the establishment of mutual understanding between people and relations between them.

Conflictness is difficult personal quality, including resentment, irascibility (anger), suspicion.

Touchiness as an emotional property of a person determines the ease of occurrence of an emotion of resentment. Proud, vain, self-loving people have a kind of hyperesthesia (increased sensitivity) of self-esteem, so they regard the most ordinary words spoken in their address as offensive, suspect others that they are deliberately offended, although they did not even think about it. Sensitivity is associated with a propensity for aggressive behavior, and this connection is closer in girls than in boys. Hot temper (anger) is a trait of temperament that manifests itself without connection with a provoking situation. It was revealed that men are characterized by a higher level of manifestation of anger than women. However, in adolescent girls, irritability, suspicion and feelings of guilt are more pronounced than in adolescent boys.

Aggressiveness- this is a tendency to react aggressively when a frustrating and conflict situation arises. This feature of a person can serve as a kind of psychological barrier that prevents the establishment of normal relations between communicating, since aggressiveness is seen as hostility.

Tolerance- this is tolerance, condescension to someone or something. This is an attitude towards a liberal, respectful attitude and acceptance of beliefs, national and other traditions and values ​​of other people that differ from their own. Tolerance contributes to the prevention of conflicts and the establishment of mutual understanding between people. Communicative tolerance is a characteristic of a person's attitude towards people, showing the degree of tolerance of unpleasant or unacceptable, in her opinion, mental states, qualities and actions of interaction partners. Tolerance is formed through education.

Shyness- this is a trait of a person associated with the desire to avoid communication or shy away from social contacts, a person's tendency to timid or bashful behavior in communication, in behavior. Shyness is seen as a biologically determined trait associated with the excitability of the nervous system. Shyness is common. In a group of people, a shy person usually keeps aloof, rarely enters into a conversation, even less often starts it himself. In conversation, he behaves awkwardly, tries to get out of the spotlight, speaks less and more quietly. Such a person always listens rather than speaks himself, does not dare to ask unnecessary questions, to argue, usually expresses his opinion timidly and indecisively. It is difficult to summon a shy person to a conversation, often he cannot squeeze a word out of himself, his answers are usually monosyllabic. Such a person sometimes cannot find the right words for a conversation, often stutters, or even completely stops talking; he is characterized by a fear of doing something in public. With everyone's attention to him, he gets lost, does not know what to answer, how to react to a remark or a joke; shy communication is often a burden. It is difficult for him to make a decision.

Shyness interferes with communication, which is akin to shyness, but manifests itself in public speaking.

Timidity- this is mental retardation. It often manifests itself in a fear associated with social situations, therefore it is defined as "social fear", "social difficulty." It manifests itself in isolation and limited mobility.

Rigidity - mobility, this property characterizes the quickness of a person's adaptation to a changing situation. The concept of "rigidity" is akin to the concept of "perseveration". They denote inertia, conservatism of attitudes, intransigence to changes introduced by innovations, weak switchability from one type of work to another. Plasticity, on the contrary, means easy compliance to changes in the situation, easy change of attitudes and judgments.

Impact on communication partners

The influence (or influence) on communication partners can be carried out intentionally and unintentionally (a person influences others only by the fact of his presence). Deliberate influence, as E.V. Sidorenko, is committed for some reason, for something, i.e. has a purpose, and the unintended - for some reason, i.e. has only a reason (for example, a person's charm).

Exists various forms impact on the communication partner. They can be non-imperative and imperative, direct or indirect.

Non-imperative direct forms of influence on the subject include:

A request that has a great influence on the subject's intentions if it is clothed in clear and polite formulations and is accompanied by respect for his right to refuse if the execution of the request creates any inconvenience for him;

A proposal (advice) is to propose something to someone, to provide something for discussion as a known opportunity (option) to solve a problem. The subject's acceptance of the proposed depends on the degree of hopelessness of the situation in which he finds himself, on the authority of the person who assumes, on the attractiveness of the proposed, on the personality characteristics of the subject himself. So, in relation to a person's temperament, they note the following: the choleric person will more likely respond to the assumption with resistance, the sanguine person will show curiosity towards him, the melancholic person will respond with avoidance, and the phlegmatic person will refuse or procrastinate, since he needs to understand the sentence;

Persuasion is a method of influencing the consciousness of a person through an appeal to her own critical judgment. The basis of conviction is the explanation of the essence of the phenomenon, cause-and-effect relationships and relationships, highlighting the social and personal significance of solving a particular issue. Persuasion can be considered successful if a person becomes able to independently justify the decision, evaluating its positive and negative sides. Persuasion appeals to analytical thinking, in which the power of logic, evidence prevails and the persuasiveness of the arguments is achieved. Conviction, as a psychological impact, should create a person's conviction in the rightness of another and his own confidence in the correctness of the decision. The following methods of persuasion are distinguished: fundamental, method of contradiction, method of "drawing conclusions", method of "chunks", method of ignoring, method of emphasizing, method of two-sided argumentation, method "yes, but ...", method of apparent support, method of boomerang.

Praise is one of the types of positive influences on a person, i.e. approval of him, a high assessment of his work or deed;

Support and consolation. Words of encouragement can persuade, cheer, inspire, soothe, comfort, or amuse. Support is not about making false statements or telling people what they want to hear. When words of support are inconsistent with the facts, they can trigger destructive behavior. Consolation means helping the person to perceive themselves and their situation more positively. Consolation is associated with an empathic response to the failure or grief of the interlocutor and shows that he is understood, sympathized with him and accepted.

Imperative direct forms of exposure include:

- orders are the official order of the one who is vested with authority;

A demand is a request expressed in a decisive, categorical form about what should be done, what the claimant has the right to do;

Prohibitions are a form of influence in which a person is not allowed to do or use something.

These forms of influence can be used in cases where one person has the right to control the behavior of the other (s). It should be borne in mind that these forms of influence are psychologically perceived by the subject as a manifestation of his power by others, as coercion, and even in some cases - as violence against his personality. Naturally, this leads to internal resistance to the requirements and prohibitions put forward, since a person does not want to be an obedient toy in the hands of another. He wants the requirements to have a certain significance for him, to meet his existing needs, attitudes, moral principles. This negative reaction can be removed by careful argumentation of the requirement put forward. This contributes to the conscious rather than blind fulfillment of the requirement, especially when it is possible to give it a sense of social and personal value. Then the demand from an external stimulus becomes an internal one.

Argumentation should remove from the requirement the coloration of the volitional influence of a senior in position or position and give it the character of social norms accepted by all members of society.

Team motivation.

Labor motivation.

In the context of the formation of new economic mechanisms oriented towards the market economy, industrial enterprises face the need to work in a new way, reckoning with the laws and requirements of the market, mastering a new type of economic behavior, adapting all aspects of production activities to the changing situation. In this regard, the contribution of each employee to the final results of the enterprise's activity increases. One of the main tasks for enterprises of various forms of ownership is the search for effective methods of labor management, ensuring the activation of the human factor.

The decisive causal factor in the performance of people is their motivation.

Motivational aspects of labor management are widely used in countries with developed market economies. In our country, the concept of labor motivation in the economic sense appeared relatively recently in connection with the democratization of production. Previously, it was used mainly in industrial economic sociology, pedagogy, psychology. This was due to a number of reasons. Firstly, economic sciences did not seek to analyze the relationship of their subjects with the named sciences, and, secondly, in a purely economic sense, until recently, the concept of "motivation" was replaced by the concept of "incentive". Such a truncated understanding of the motivational process led to an orientation towards short-term economic goals, towards achieving momentary profits. This had a destructive effect on the need-motivational personality of the employee, did not arouse interest in his own development, self-improvement, and this system is today the most important reserve for increasing production efficiency.

Labor motivation is a process of stimulating an individual performer or a group of people to activities aimed at achieving the goals of the organization, to the productive implementation of decisions made or planned work.

This definition shows a close relationship between the managerial and individual-psychological content of motivation, based on the fact that the management of a social system and a person, in contrast to the management of technical systems, contains, as a necessary element, the coordination of the chains of the object and the subject of management. Its result will be the labor behavior of the object of management and, ultimately, a certain result of labor activity.

R. Owen and A. Smith considered money to be the only motivating factor. According to their interpretation, people are purely economic beings who work only to obtain the funds necessary to purchase food, clothing, housing, and so on.

Modern theories of motivation, based on the results of psychological research, prove that the true reasons that induce a person to give all their strength to work are extremely complex and diverse. According to some scientists, a person's action is determined by his needs. Those who adhere to a different position proceed from the fact that human behavior is also a function of his perception and expectations.

When considering motivation, the focus should be on the factors that force a person to act and reinforce their actions. The main ones are: needs, interests, motives and incentives.

Needs cannot be directly observed or measured, they can only be judged by the behavior of people. Allocate primary and secondary needs. Primary ones are physiological in nature: a person cannot do without food, water, clothing, shelter, rest, and the like. Secondary ones are developed in the course of learning and acquiring life experience, that is, there are psychological needs for affection, respect, and success.

Needs can be satisfied by reward by giving a person what he considers valuable for himself. But in the concept of "value" different people they put a different meaning, and, therefore, their assessments of remuneration also differ. For example, a wealthy person may find a few hours of rest with their family more significant to themselves than the money they receive for overtime work for the good of the organization. For a person working in a scientific institution, the respect of colleagues and interesting job, and not the material benefits that he would receive, performing the duties of, say, a salesman in a prestigious supermarket.

"Internal" a person receives a reward from work, feeling the significance of his work, feeling a feeling for a certain team, satisfaction from communicating friendly relations with colleagues.

"External" remuneration is salary, promotion, symbols of service status and prestige.

The motivational process can be presented in the form of the following one after another stages: the employee's awareness of his needs as a system of preference, the choice of the best way to receive a certain type of remuneration, the decision to implement it; taking action; receiving remuneration; satisfaction of the need. The core of management based on motivation will be the impact in a certain way on the interests of the participants. labor process to achieve the best performance results.

For labor management based on motivation, such prerequisites as identifying the inclinations and interests of the employee, taking into account his personal and professional abilities, determining motivational opportunities and alternatives in the team and for a specific person are necessary. It is necessary to make fuller use of the personal goals of the participants in the labor process and the goals of the organization.

No goals set from the outside cause a person's interest in intensifying his efforts until they turn into his “internal” goal and then into his “internal” plan of action. Therefore, for the ultimate success, the coincidence of the goals of the employee and the enterprise is of great importance.

To solve this problem, it is necessary to create a motivation mechanism for increasing labor efficiency. This means a set of methods and techniques for influencing workers from the management system of the enterprise, prompting them to behave in a certain way in the labor process to achieve the goals of the organization, based on the need to meet personal needs.

Ways to improve labor motivation

Consider ways to improve labor motivation. They are united in five relatively independent directions:

1. Material incentives.

2. Improving the quality of the workforce.

3. Improving the organization of work.

4. Involvement of personnel in the management process.

5. Non-monetary incentives.

The first direction reflects the role of the motivational mechanism of remuneration in the system of increasing labor productivity. It includes, as elements, improving the wage system, enabling staff to participate in the property and profits of the enterprise.

Of course, the motivational mechanism of labor remuneration plays a large role, but a constant increase in the level of labor remuneration does not contribute to either maintaining labor activity at the proper level or increasing labor productivity. Application of this method can be useful for achieving short-term increases in labor productivity. Ultimately, there is a certain overlap or addiction to this type of influence. One-sided influence on workers only by monetary methods cannot lead to a long-term rise in labor productivity.

Although labor in our country, in contrast to highly developed countries, is today considered mainly only as a means of earning money, it can be assumed that the need for money will grow up to a certain limit, depending on the standard of living, after which money will become a condition for a normal psychological condition, preservation of human dignity. In this case, other groups of needs related to the need for creativity, achievement of success, and others can act as dominant ones. It is very important for a leader to be able to recognize the needs of employees. The need of a lower level must be satisfied before the need of the next level becomes a more significant factor in determining human behavior.

Needs are constantly changing, so one cannot expect that motivation that worked once will be effective in the future. With the development of the personality, opportunities and needs for self-expression expand. Thus, the process of motivating by satisfying needs is endless.

The next direction for improving motivation - improving the organization of work - contains setting goals, expanding labor functions, enrichment of labor, production rotation, the use of flexible schedules, improvement of working conditions.

Goal setting assumes that a correctly set goal through the formation of an orientation towards achieving it serves as a motivating tool for the employee.

Expansion of labor functions implies the introduction of diversity in the work of personnel, that is, an increase in the number of operations performed by one employee. As a result, the working cycle for each worker is lengthened, and the intensity of labor increases. The use of this method is advisable in case of underutilization of workers and own desire them to expand the range of their activities, otherwise it can lead to sharp resistance from workers.

Enrichment of labor implies providing a person with such work that would give an opportunity for growth, creativity, responsibility, self-actualization, the inclusion in his responsibilities of some functions of planning and quality control of the main and sometimes related products. This method is advisable to apply in the labor sphere of engineering and technical workers.

For mass blue-collar occupations, it is best to use production rotation, which involves the alternation of types of work and production operations, when workers periodically exchange jobs during the period, which is typical mainly for the brigade form of labor organization.

Improving working conditions is the most acute problem of today. At the stage of transition to the market, the importance of working conditions as one of the most important human needs increases. The new level of social maturity of the individual denies the unfavorable conditions of the working environment. Working conditions, acting not only as a need, but also as a motive for working with a certain return, can be both a factor and a consequence of a certain labor productivity and its efficiency.

Another side of this problem should be distinguished - the low labor culture of the workers themselves. Working for a long time in unsatisfactory sanitary and hygienic conditions, a person does not know how, and does not want to properly organize his workplace. Recently, Japanese methods of productivity management have been introduced as an experiment in our advanced enterprises, one of which is the improvement of production culture. Compliance with the five principles of work is one of the elements of labor morality.

Eliminate unnecessary items in the workplace

Properly position and store the items you need

Maintain a clean and tidy workplace at all times

Permanent readiness of the workplace to carry out work

Learn the discipline and observe the listed principles.

The state of the workplace is assessed on a daily basis when checking the point grade for compliance with the specified rules. The workers are directly interested in the constant maintenance of their place in good condition, since in this case the tariff part of his earnings increases by 10%. The use of such a system allows raising the level of production culture and contributes to the growth of labor productivity.

Conclusion.

This work aims to illustrate how difficult and at the same time easy it is to make a company prosperous.

The success of any collective activity lies in the relationship of cooperation and trust, mutual assistance and professionalism. At the same time, it is equally important to determine the individual psychological qualities of a person, her real state and capabilities, the degree of conflict and sociability. Of course, serious studies of the human psyche require a complex and multifaceted analysis, the use of a diverse set of specific techniques.

The team itself is a potentially powerful incentive for labor activity, it brings satisfaction to its members, sets high goals, and creates a creative atmosphere. It is not for nothing that they say that a person is happy when he goes to work in a good mood and returns home with the same. Joint solution of production interests reduces stressful situations, increases the innovative potential of employees.

The effectiveness and comfort of business communication in a group to a large extent depend on its leader, more precisely, on the leadership style he practices.

Style in general is a manifestation and expression of a leader's individuality. It is "selected" as a personal wardrobe: so that it is, firstly, convenient, and secondly, according to the situation. But what is comfortable and familiar to the boss is not necessarily so for the subordinates.

In order for the organization to flourish and develop successfully, the leader must take into account a lot of parameters, and they concern not only economic and legal situations. The head of the organization must understand exactly who he is leading, who needs to be paid more attention to, with whom and how he should talk.

List of used literature

Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. - M., 1996

Ilyin E.P. Psychology of communication and interpersonal relations. - SPb .: Peter, 2010 .-- 576 p.

Zhuravlev A.L. Psychology of joint activities. - M .: Publishing house "Institute of Psychology RAS", 2005. - 640s.

The purpose of this study was to study socially-psychological factors influencing on the emergence of addictive behavior in ... 11th grade. For research socially-psychological factors influencing on the emergence of addictive behavior in adolescence ...

1. Socially-demographic factors, influencing on consumer behavior

   Abstract >> Marketing

   1.1. Socially-demographic factors in system factors, influencing on consumer behavior Basic classification factors influence on customer's ... but primarily within psychological and sociological disciplines. The task of marketers ...

2. Influence socially-psychological group characteristics on efficiency of decision making

   Coursework >> Psychology

   Research: group as socially-psychological phenomenon. Subject of study: socially-psychological factors, influencing on efficiency of group decision making ...

3. Factors, influencing on satisfaction with marriage

   Thesis >> Sociology

   Above psychological factors it should be noted that there are also socially-demographic factors, influencing on... Family structure. M. 1988. Volkova A.N. Socially-psychological factors spousal compatibility. Questions of Psychology - No. 2, 1989 ...