commodity capital. Trading capital and trading profit

Historically, the first form of capital is trading capital. Initially, it was called merchant's capital and functioned as the individual capital of merchants. In fact, they were the first commercial enterprises in circulation.

This capital strengthened its positions in the Middle Ages, using various unions of merchants and their extensive connections in various countries. Often, merchant capital relied on the support of absolutist power. This gave merchant capital advantages over nascent industrial capital and made it possible to dictate its terms to peasants in the sale of agricultural products, and to artisans and owners of the first capitalist manufactories in the sale of industrial goods. Trading profit arose mainly from unequal exchange. However, this source of capital accumulation gradually weakened, which allowed industrial capitalists, through the production of surplus value on own enterprises win a revolutionary victory. As you know, it is not classes and guilds that win, but more progressive types of economies, on the basis of which new classes and social groups are formed.

At the same time, merchant's capital, increasing in quantity and expanding in space, created favorable conditions for the maturation of the capitalist mode of production. Everything happened in accordance with the principles of dialectical materialism: the dying form of capital created the material basis for a more progressive form of capital - industrial capital. Industrial capital subjugated trade, transformed merchant's capital into merchant's capital, and on this basis created its own material base in the sphere of circulation. The bulk of the new commercial capital began to form from a detached part of the circulation of industrial capital, for which the problem of realization became extremely important. finished products. If the reader goes back and skims a few chapters back and looks at the subject of circulation and circulation of capital, he will be convinced that, in its origin, merchant's capital is a separate part of industrial capital.

We recommend that students memorize well this very important theoretical conclusion. It will be useful to us in the analysis of the origins of periodic economic crises under capitalism. Modern theorists and political leaders see the cause of crises either in the sphere of trade or in the financial sphere. Meanwhile, the sphere of circulation is secondary and cannot be the root cause of catharsis in all social production.

The objective necessity of isolating commercial capital lies in the fact that it accelerates the turnover of industrial capital, reduces circulation costs, and increases the efficiency of social production. If the industrialist were to engage in trade independently, he would be forced to keep part of his capital in the sphere of circulation. By resorting to the help of commercial capital, the industrial capitalist relieves himself of the burden of worries about the sale of products, and uses the released funds to increase the production of goods. Commercial capital appears only in two forms - monetary and commodity forms.

Thus, the sale of finished products in the course of the development of social production has become a special branch of the economy, including a large number of special enterprises and forming the microeconomics of the sphere of circulation. The origin and essence of commercial capital and the laws of functioning of microeconomics are considered in most detail by K. Marx in Volume III of Capital. Neither the predecessors, nor the contemporaries of Marx, nor the current researchers have practically not been and are not engaged in studying the features of the functioning of microeconomics in trade. Everything social production, including the sphere of circulation, are reduced to the notorious market.

Merchant capital, being the property of a special group of merchant capitalists, is constantly in the sphere of circulation. The formula for the movement of commercial capital is M - C - M + Hell, that is, the purchase of goods from producers and their subsequent sale directly to consumers. In this case, we are talking about both consumer goods and partly about the means of production. The means of production quite often bypass the sphere of trade and are sold directly. In this case capital takes the form of commodity capital and should not be confused with commercial capital. Commodity capital is one of the parts (types) of directly industrial capital. It appears in the form of certain products of labor produced in industrial, agricultural (raw materials), construction, transport and other industries, and intended for sale directly to industrialists. Commodity capital, as already noted in the topic of circulation and turnover of capital, performs the function of realization and receipt by the owner of surplus value. In contrast, commercial capital functions as an agent of industrial capital, and its function is reduced to the sale of finished products, mainly for the population.

A necessary condition for the realization of the main goal of entrepreneurship - making a profit on advanced capital - is planning the reproduction of capital, which covers the stages of investment, production, sale (exchange) and consumption.

The formation and use of various monetary funds to reimburse the cost of capital, its accumulation and consumption is the essence of the mechanism of financial management in the enterprise.

Regardless of whether the capital of an enterprise is divided into own, borrowed, fixed or circulating, fixed or variable, it is in the process of continuous movement, taking only different forms depending on the specific stage of the circuit.

Business as a system functions and develops as a result of previous capital investments and, above all, in fixed assets. Making a profit today is the result of correct decisions on the proportions of capital investment in fixed and working capital, taken even before the start operating activities enterprises. Therefore, effective capital management requires a clear understanding of the specifics of their functioning and reproduction.

Function

trading capi

tala

consists in the implementation of

exchange of goods and services with the aim of converting commodity capital into de

tender capital.

It is at this stage that value is realized in the form of price, which contains the desired object of any entrepreneurship - profit (surplus value). Thus, the circle is closed, capital returned to its original form. It can be said that capital has completed a circuit.

But I would like to clarify and give, as it seems to me, a more detailed and objective interpretation of capital within the framework of the dialectical process of its formation and growth.

First, in its most elementary and essential manifestation, capital is both a thing, and money, and value, and any benefits that can be put into economic circulation. Without the means of production or without the necessary financial resources, it is impossible to start an entrepreneurial business, and above all, it will not be possible to hire a worker, that is, to buy labor power, and therefore enter into a relationship of exploitation. Therefore, in its primordial essence, capital is any good, value.

However, within the framework of Marx's theory, this is a necessary, but far from sufficient condition for the "life" of capital. In this regard, the next step should be taken to reveal the essence

capital.

Secondly, capital is not just a cost, but an advanced value, which symbolizes the rejection of its momentary use in the name of personal benefit, but in the interests of business. Therefore, no matter how many sharp arrows are shot from the side of Marxists towards the supporters of abstention, nevertheless, it is most directly expressed in the advance of funds for the implementation of this or that project, which is also associated with the risk of losing the advanced value and suffering a complete fiasco, not that to make a profit.

Thirdly, in itself, the advance of value in the Marxian sense is not yet capital, since, in the final analysis, as a result economic activity the income received can cover only the costs of production, the costs of means of production and labor. Therefore, even at this third level of manifestation of the essence of capital, it is still impossible to say that capital has taken place. It can be considered as such only if surplus value is created, that is, if it brings profit. Only in this incarnation can it be regarded as a self-increasing value. However, surplus value, profit, in comparison with the advanced value or advanced capital, is only an insignificant part. The vast majority of the funds used in economic activity remains the full property of the entrepreneur, quite possibly having nothing to do with the operation and its previous existence.

Fourthly, capital will appear in all its grandeur only when it is wholly and undividedly included in surplus value. This is such a state when all the initially advanced value will be used up and replaced by a surplus value appropriated free of charge, profit.

Finally, fifthly, it is not just a cost or a self-increasing value, but a moving value - a value that is constantly in motion. And the faster the turnover of the advanced value, the less capital is required to achieve the set goal, for example, to obtain a certain amount of profit. This is also a way of self-expansion of value.

In national economic practice and economic literature, monetary accumulations are called the net income of society, which is realized in cash at enterprises in the sphere of material production. Net income is a category of production associated with the process of dividing labor into necessary and surplus. A surplus product is a product created by the labor of people in an enterprise, which acts as the net income of society.

functional form and the third stage of the circulation of industrial capital (See industrial capital). It functions in the sphere of circulation and serves the process of changing forms of value. In natural form it is represented by a certain mass of Goods produced at capitalist enterprises and intended for sale. In terms of value, it consists of 3 elements: with + v + m, where with- fixed capital v- variable capital, m- surplus value. As the scale of capitalist production became larger and the public division labor, there is a separation of the functions of implementation. in the form of trading capital (See Trading capital).

A characteristic feature of capitalism is that its circulation reflects not only the process of self-expansion of the originally advanced value, but also the movement of capital-value, which contains surplus-value. In the process of movement of capital stock, the value of the advanced capital and surplus value are realized.

Circulation Because it involves the satisfaction of personal and production needs. Capitalists must find on the market the means of production necessary to replace the consumed means of production and to expand the scale of productive activity. Capitalists and workers must be able to buy consumer goods on the market. The circulation Because it reflects the internal interconnection between capitalist production and circulation within the framework of the reproduction of all social capital. The aim of capitalist production is to obtain surplus value, and from this point of view it is indifferent to the capitalists what use values ​​to produce. However, the appropriation of surplus value presupposes an act of realization. If the produced product does not correspond to the volume and structure of social needs, then it cannot be realized; the transformation of value, and, consequently, of surplus value, from the commodity form into the money form will be impossible, and the normal process of reproduction of individual capital will be disrupted. The relationship between production and circulation under capitalism is regulated spontaneously by the law of value (see the Law of Value) and therefore always manifests itself approximately, indirectly, in the form of periodically recurring crises of overproduction (see Economic crises).

The relevance of the research topic is determined by the importance theoretical research essence of capital within economic theory, understanding it as a certain stock of values ​​(goods) in monetary or non-monetary form, which brings income to its owner, providing self-expansion of wealth, especially in the form of money.

Elements of the doctrine of the accumulation of wealth - especially in the form of money - are already found in Aristotle. Then this concept becomes the subject of analysis by mercantilists, physiocrats, and classics. It was first analyzed in the most consistent and systematic way by K. Marx, who revealed the essence of capital on the basis of the doctrine of surplus value. However, his concept did not become exhaustive in resolving all the complex issues of the theory of capital.

At present, there is no unambiguous understanding of capital in world economic science. In the very general view the semantic content of the concept under consideration is reduced to a narrow interpretation of capital as a good in general.

At the same time, a significant place in modern definitions of capital is given to its characterization as the main element of production, acting in various forms, including the creation of services.

The purpose of the work is to study the concept of trading capital and trading profit as an economic category, the most important forms of existence of trading capital, means and sources of formation.

The foregoing determined the tasks:

1. Find out the essence of the concept of trading capital and trading profit.

2. Consider the role of commercial capital in social production.

3. Analysis of forms and methods of organizing trade.

When writing the work, the method of analyzing the theoretical literature of both domestic and foreign authors was used. Among them are such authors as Bulatov A.S., Viksel K., Dobrynin A.I. Drucker Peter, Kiseleva E.A., Sidorovich A.V., Mil Js S., Tarasovich L.S. other.

1. TRADING CAPITAL AND TRADING PROFIT

1.1. The essence of trading capital and trading profit

Capital (originally - the main property, the main amount, from the Latin saritais - the main one) is one of the most important categories of economic science, an indispensable element of a market economy.

Capital (production assets) is a fundamental and backbone category. It reflects the material conditions of any form of activity - industry, Agriculture, transport, sphere social services, banking and financial sectors. Therefore, the category of capital remained the subject of constant study of all generations of economists. Their views on the nature of this category served as a reflection of the level of socio-economic development, the structure of the economy, the degree of development of economic science and the impact on the objectivity of research on politics and ideology.

Mercantilists are the pioneers of the category "capital". For them, trading capital served as the basis for understanding the category "capital". The mercantilists saw the wealth of the country in gold and silver money, and its source - in foreign trade, which provided an active trade balance due to non-equivalent foreign trade exchange.

Merchant capital was the first and only isolated free form of capital that brought both goods and income. As a consequence, the real form of capital movement for the mercantilists was in the form of:

d – t – d + dd, (1)

The essence of this formula is to buy in order to sell at a higher price. Profit was brought by a speculative transaction, not a productive activity. Mercantilists identified money and capital. The views of the mercantilists were determined by their contemporary socio-economic processes. Early mercantilism is the era of the primitive accumulation of capital in the last third of the 15th century. In the context of the underdevelopment of domestic production and the entire economic system in general, the importation of rare goods and precious metals brought huge cash incomes. The investment of capital in other spheres of production and trade within the country gave such a meager income that in the absence of the very understanding of the productive form of capital, its isolation was simply impossible. However, such a narrow approach to the understanding of capital was characteristic only of the early mercantilists.

The views of the late mercantilists (second half of the 16th - 19th centuries) were a reflection of the changes that took place in the socio-economic life of society at that time. They still treated money as capital. However, the central point of late mercantilism was the system of active trade balance. Consequently, the later mercantilists reflected the new in economic development countries of that time, which consisted in stimulating the surplus of goods produced in the country and exporting them to other countries to increase money capital.

Physiocrats (from French rhusiocrates, from Greek rpusis - nature and kratos - strength, power) are representatives of the direction in economic thought following the mercantilists. Their doctrine arose as a reaction to the mercantilists and the changes that took place in the economies of European countries by the middle of the 18th century. F. Quesnay (1694-1774) is considered the founder of this trend. The Physiocrats transferred the study of the origin of profit from the sphere of circulation to the sphere of production, thus laying the foundations of the theory of capital. However, due to the underdevelopment industrial production Physiocrats considered only agricultural labor productive.

However, for the Physiocrats, not only the land, but also the labor applied to it, was of decisive importance. "Income is the product of land and man"; “without the application of human labor, the earth is of no value,” writes F. Quesnay 1 . It is difficult to disagree with this statement even today, although since then there have been colossal changes in the economic system of society.

Physiocrats analyzed the components of capital, which to a certain extent correspond to its modern division into fixed and circulating.

Money for the Physiocrats is not wealth, in itself they are "barren" and perform only the function of circulation. The physiocrats considered the accumulation of money to be harmful, since it withdraws money from circulation and deprives them of their only useful function - to serve as an exchange of goods. Unlike the mercantilists, they considered the source of commercial profit not the sphere of circulation, but the sphere of material - agricultural production.

The views of the Physiocrats on capital are a reflection of the level of development of the capitalist economy and production relations of their time - the era of early small-scale production and the determining role of land and agricultural labor. At the same time, their views on the nature of capital are an important step in understanding its economic content. Still not clearly grasping the main property of capital - to generate income, the physiocrats nevertheless involuntarily drew attention to this general property and the essence that determines capital. It was the ability of capital to create income, intuitively grasped at the initial stage of the development of the capitalist economic system, that later became a system-forming element in various theories of capital and understanding of its movement in the reproduction process.

So it can be seen that theory can only follow practice, investigating it, generalizing and drawing conclusions. The development of economic thought is determined solely by the level of socio-economic development of society - the degree of development of the productive forces and production relations. Therefore, it is no coincidence that classical political economy arose in England in the 18th century. This period is characterized by a high level of development of agriculture, the growth of industrial production, the complication of its structure, and the intensification of foreign trade.

A. Smith, the founder of classical political economy, summarizing the views of his predecessors and contemporaries, for the first time revealed the nature of the category "capital" and most clearly defined it. According to A. Smith, capital is that part of the reserves "from which they expect to receive income" 1 . Capital is the means of production, embodied material wealth, the productive use of which allows you to make a profit. A. Smith considered as productive capital not only the capital employed in agriculture, but primarily the capital employed in material production in general. A detailed analysis of this category helped to identify its functions, and on this basis to divide it into main and circulating. Of great interest is the definition of A. Smith's fixed capital. In his opinion, fixed capital consists, among other things, "of the acquired or useful abilities of all inhabitants or members of society" 2 , thus believing that the means of production are materialized living labor, the totality of people's knowledge and abilities realized in fixed capital. Smith clearly delineated profit from wages, showing that the formation of profit follows from the fact of private ownership of the means of production. Loan interest Smith withdrew from the profit and understood it as part of the profit. Rent was associated by Smith with private ownership of land and was defined as a deduction in favor of the landowner from full cost product.

The followers of A. Smith also paid great attention to the category of "capital". Among them are many outstanding scientists: Zh.B. Say, T.R. Malthus, N.W. Senior, J.S. Mill and others. Being popularizers of the economic theory of A. Smith, these economists at the same time made a certain clarity in understanding the nature of capital, supplementing the theory of capital with new characteristics. So, for J.S. Mill's capital is "a pre-accumulated stock of the products of former labour" 1 . However, not just the accumulated stock is capital, but only the results of previous labor intended for production. Analyzing the category "capital", J.S. Mill drew attention to the process of movement of capital, a characteristic that had gone unnoticed by others. Thus, he proves that the size of capital limits (determines) the size of industry; capital is the result of savings; capital, being the result of saving, is itself consumed in the process. It was the identification of the essence of capital as a process of saving that determined the content of capital as a special labor - investment.

J.B. Say supplemented the theory of capital by including entrepreneurial and managerial abilities of the owner of the means of production among the factors determining income. However, classical political economy, represented by A. Smith and his popularizers, was unable to define the category of "capital", while creating real prerequisites for a more in-depth analysis.

The next stage in the development of science and nature of the category "capital" was the creation by K. Marx of the theory of labor value. His studies are, on the one hand, a deep analysis of the fundamental categories of the commodity-capitalist system, on the other hand, an ideological orientation towards the destruction of this system. Unfortunately really scientific achievements K. Marx is underestimated or deliberately distorted because of his conclusions about the insolubility of antagonistic contradictions born of private capitalist ownership of the means of production.

At the same time, it should be borne in mind that K. Marx studied the real situation in the development of capitalism in the middle of the 19th century, when all of its social
economic contradictions reached the limit and the possibility of maintaining the capitalist system was in question. Thus, P. Drucker writes that "most of Marx's contemporaries shared his views on capitalism", "even opponents of Marxism accepted his analysis of the internal contradictions of capitalism" 1 .

Not without the influence of the teachings of K. Marx and his wide dissemination in the world, capitalism was able to find methods and means of more or less successfully resolving these contradictions. However, the objective achievements of K. Marx in the field of economic science are distorted for ideological reasons.

A prominent American specialist in the field of modern economic thought, B. Seligman, believes that "Marx's definition of capital has great merit," but this is irretrievably lost in the theories of Fisher and Knight, which leaves an impression of their apologetic nature.

Marx critically analyzed and summarized all previous experience both in the development of capitalism and the views of economists on private capitalist production. In "Capital", published in 1867 in Hamburg, K. Marx gave definitions to all the main economic categories, paying great attention to the study of the nature of capital and the definition of this category.

As the study of the nature of capital deepens, K. Marx gives several definitions of this category. The shortest and most capacious: capital is a value that brings surplus value, i.e. capital is a self-increasing value.

K. Marx gives the general formula of capital:

D - T - D + d, (2)

and resolves the contradiction of this formula within the framework of the law of value, proving that d - profit is formed not in the sphere of circulation, but in the sphere of production as a result of the combination of means of production with a specific commodity "labor power". This "commodity" has the unique property of creating more value than the value of the commodity itself - labor power.

K. Marx divided all capital into constant (preserving its value in the process of production) and variable (changing its value, creating a greater value than its own value).

Deepening the study of the nature of capital, K. Marx defines this category as a social economic relationship between people in the process of production of material goods. “Capital,” wrote K. Marx, “is not a thing, but a certain, social ... relation that is represented in a thing and gives this thing a specific social character.” Consequently, capital is not money, not the means of production, but a relation in a capitalist society, as a result of which the owner of the means of production has the opportunity to appropriate part of the unpaid labor of employees. The basis and guarantee of the existence of this public relations is private ownership of the means of production.

The fact that two class - class capitalists and the wage-worker class in modern conditions learning to coexist more peacefully and to satisfy their own mutual interests without resorting to violence does not mean that exploitation as a social phenomenon has completely disappeared. The basis of exploitation is private ownership of the means of production, and the exploitation of the worker, as already noted, is the basis of the income of the owner of the means of production, i.e. capitalist. However, private property is, in turn, the basis for the functioning of the market as an economic system of society. Thus, the appropriation of part of unpaid labor is one of the most important laws of the functioning of the market economy.

Note that it is also necessary to take into account that the work of hired workers cannot and should not be paid in full. No matter how you call the unpaid part of the labor of workers - surplus value, surplus labor or profit - it is objectively necessary, plays a progressive role in the socio-economic development of society, acting as a material basis for expanding production, generating budget revenues and implementing active social programs.

Thus, capital is a certain amount of goods in the form of material, monetary and intellectual means used as a resource in further production. Therefore, capital is the sum of so-called capital goods, i.e. goods to produce other goods. Bricks (they will build a house), machine tools (they will be used to make parts for future passenger cars), a TV set (it will play a TV show), etc. can be considered a capital good.

Profit is the immediate goal of economic activity and all subjects of a market economy engaged in entrepreneurship. Despite the fact that this category is an object of economic theory and occupies a fundamental role in a market economy, disputes about its essence and forms have not ceased for several centuries. In textbooks and scientific articles, the category "profit" is inextricably linked with the category of income, capital, interest, abstinence, expectations, and many others. In practical terms, profit is no secret and in all countries with a market economy its quantitative value is defined as the difference between the total revenue from the sale of goods and services and total costs. In theoretical terms, we are again forced to consider two approaches to assessing the economic nature of profit.

K. Marx in "Capital" defined profit as a converted form of surplus value. The latter, according to Marx, is the unpaid surplus labor of a wage worker employed in the sphere of material production. The worker by his labor creates more value than his labor power is worth. This difference attracts the capitalist and for the sake of it he develops his stormy activity. On the surface of bourgeois society, the appropriation of other people's labor is obscured and profit appears as a product of the movement of all advanced capital, as a result of production costs. Thus, in the Marxist interpretation, profit is the result of the exploitation of wage labor by capital, and the relation "capitalist-wage worker" constitutes the basic relation of capitalist society.

It is impossible to agree with such an interpretation of profit for a number of reasons. If exploitation is understood as the appropriation of the product of unpaid labor and an attribute of capitalism, then capitalism embraces the entire history of human civilization.

It is important to see not only the very fact of the alienation of the product of unpaid labor, but also in whose interests the alienated product is used.

There are a number of other approaches to understanding profit that differ from Marx's interpretation. Even in the early stages of the development of capitalism, the representatives of the first school of political economy, the mercantilists, argued that profit arises from circulation, from the acts of purchase and sale themselves. Representatives of classical political economy A. Smith and D. Ricardo believed that profit is created in production and is a deduction from the worker's labor product. In the first half of the XIX century. the theory of "three factors of production" by the French economist J.-B. Say (1767-1832) arose, according to which profit is the result of the productivity of capital itself. Later, at the end of the 19th century, Say's ideas were developed in the writings of the American economist J.B. Clark (1847-1938).

In the middle of the XIX century. subjective-psychological interpretations of profit have become widespread, according to which people tend to evaluate present benefits much higher than future ones. Representatives of this concept consider profit as the result of the "abstention" of capitalists from the consumption of goods in the present for the sake of consumption in the future. This theory is most fully represented in the works of the English economist N. Senior (1790 - 1864), and later - in the works of the representative of the Austrian school E. Behm-Bawerk (1851 - 1914).

In the works of famous English economists D.S. Misha (1806 - 1878), J.R. McCulloch (1789 - 1864), as well as in the works of economists of the XX century. profit is treated as the labor income of the entrepreneur, his remuneration entrepreneurial activity. In essence, profit is viewed as a factor income, as an income for a special resource - entrepreneurial ability. This approach to understanding profit has become predominant in modern Western scientific and educational literature. This tradition was most fully developed in the works of the American economist F. Knight. He considered profit not only as a payment to the entrepreneur for his management services, but also as a reward for the uncertainty and risk in his activities. Within the framework of this approach, a distinction is made between the concepts of "normal profit" and "economic (net) profit". Normal profit is considered as a payment to the entrepreneur for the management service, and economic (net) profit - as a reward for the risk of entrepreneurship.

Behind each factor of production are specific people and groups of people. Behind labor are hired workers, behind capital are its owners, behind land are its owners. And if we recognize that any economic good is the result of the interaction of factors of production, then we must also recognize that all groups of the population behind these factors participate by their labor in the creation of goods and new value. The only difference is that some participate in today's living labor, while others in the past, embodied in the material elements of production. This is their accumulated materialized labor. It may be the result of the labor efforts of a number of generations. Every economic good is ultimately the product of the labor of the whole society. And the effect of his efforts takes the form of income (profit) at all levels of economic activity.

1.2. Commercial capital as a separate part of industrial capital

As a result of productive consumption, a product, service,
having a certain utility (use value) and individual value, the value of which is largely determined by individual costs. The function of this stage of the movement of commodity capital is: the sale of the created goods on the market; determination of the social efficiency of a given capital by the ratio of individual production costs and public evaluation in the form of a price formed in society under the influence of total production costs, the ratio of supply and demand for a given product, etc., the conditions for sale on the market. At this stage, the primary distribution of the cost of the created product is also carried out. The magnitude of production costs makes it possible, first of all, to allocate a compensation fund, i.e. the amount of money capital needed to replace the expended resources in order to maintain a given economic system. In addition, the accumulation fund needs to be allocated, without which the development of the system, and hence its normal existence, is impossible. The rest of the amount should be divided between the enterprise and other subjects of society (the state, banks, insurance companies, etc.).

1.3. Trading profit and its sources

Profit
in trade, it is a monetary expression of the value of the surplus product created by the productive labor of trade workers who are engaged in continuing the production process in the sphere of trade circulation, as well as part of the surplus product created by the labor of workers in other sectors of the national economy (industry, agriculture, transport, etc.) and directed into trade through the mechanism of prices for goods, tariffs, trade allowances as a payment for the sale of goods (products, services).

Simplified profit.— is the difference between the gross income and the distribution costs of the enterprise. Such profit is usually called accounting (gross), it reflects financial results specific business activity. However, as you know, not all costs of a commercial enterprise are included in distribution costs.

Part of the costs of the enterprise is carried out at the expense of profit, and therefore does not include them in the distribution costs.

The main source of profit for a commercial enterprise is gross income.

Gross income in sum terms is defined as the difference between the sale and purchase value of goods.

Gross income from the sale of goods reflects the price of trade services, i.e. the share of trade in the retail price of goods. The retail price of goods in a generalized form is calculated by the formula:

RC = SS + PII + TNII + VAT + TN + NP, , (3)

where РЦ is the retail price of the goods, rub.;

CC - the cost of production of goods, rub.;

PII - profit manufacturing enterprise, rub.;

ТНII - trade markup of an intermediary enterprise, rub.;

VAT – value added tax, rub.;

ТН - trade allowance of a retail trade enterprise, rub.;

NP - sales tax, rub.

Gross income of a commercial enterprise is mainly generated by trading allowances. Trade allowances are set as a percentage of the prices at which goods are purchased from manufacturers (sales price) or from intermediaries (wholesale price).

The trade allowance is intended to reimburse distribution costs (trade costs for the sale of goods), the payment of taxes and fees and the formation of profits of a trading enterprise.

1.4. The role of commercial capital in social production

The capital (production assets) of each enterprise is individual, specific. Its specificity is determined by the specialization of production, i.e. those types of finished products and services with which the enterprise enters the market, the scale of production, the ratio of workers and means of production, etc.

At the same time, capital (production assets) is characterized by processes and a structure that is common to all enterprises.

The basis of the movement of the reproduction process within each enterprise, regardless of the specialization and nature of production assets, is the circulation of capital (production assets). The circulation of capital is the movement of the value of production assets, covering the period of creation of a specific consumer value (goods, product).

Each type of production is distinguished by the specifics of the circulation and, above all, the time of manufacture of finished products. At the same time, in any production, individual capital exists simultaneously in three functional forms: as monetary, productive and commodity capital; each of them performs its functions, providing together the process of continuity of its movement.

The circulation of individual capital, production assets is carried out according to the following formula:

where D - monetary initial investment capital;

T cn - difficult various material factors of production;

P with (Fz / pl) - the required total labor force and the corresponding value of the wage fund;

П - productive capital;

T - commodity capital - the product of this particular production, which contains a surplus product;

M'- money capital received in the process of realizing commodity capital, the value of which is greater than the initial one by d, which is the profit of this capital (M + d).

Each enterprise begins to function as an independent isolated organism from the first stage of the circulation, during which the monetary form of value is transformed into factors of the capital form:

This initial amount is invested by a certain owner - a private entrepreneur, partnership, joint-stock company, the state and, finally, a mixed owner, combining various forms of ownership. In all cases, the reproduction of a given system begins only as a result of the unity of a certain amount of money, the corresponding factors of production that are necessary for a particular business (production, banking, trade, etc.), and the total labor force. As a result of the purchase of the necessary factors of production, the amount of money takes the form of capital. Moreover, this relationship is inverse. A specific business requires the investment of an appropriate amount of money, invested in a dosed amount at a certain time and in the right portions. As it forms, it creates this capital. The investment process determines the possibility of creating a specific business - an enterprise of a certain type, size, with certain start-up periods, payback, etc. It is determined by the amount of money at the disposal of the entrepreneur and his ability to attract borrowed or budgetary resources, attract co-owners. Moreover, these possibilities should be calculated in advance and be strictly guaranteed. Any delay in investment ties up the resources expended, delays the possibilities of productive use, and reduces the estimated design efficiency of capital. This is one of the main features of the process of circulation of capital in its initial stage. Here, in the process of investing, all future performance is laid down, the nature of the further movement of capital.

Thus, at the first stage of the circulation of capital, the most important functions of money capital are the following:

1) for a newly emerging system - the development of an appropriate project, the determination of the conditions and opportunities for its implementation, the creation of an enterprise, its launch, development, the need to provide for all the internal and external conditions for its subsequent functioning - the purchase of the necessary factors of production, the creation of conditions for the birth of a new total labor force;

2) for operating capital - the timely acquisition of various elements of the means of production in exchange for those consumed in the previous production cycle.

With the completion of the first stage, capital takes the form of productive capital, representing the totality of specific means of production, information system and the labor force necessary for a rational production process. At this stage, where capital acquires the material form of factors of production and labor power, its productive consumption takes place. As a result, employees create specific products, services, perform certain work. The general form of the movement of capital is P, where the ellipsis means a break in circulation and constant repetition.

The second stage has a special functional content.

1. There is a consumption of labor, during which workers perform a specific set labor functions to create a particular product. Each employee at his workplace spends specific labor, expends energy, which requires restoration and payment. At the same time, the employee accumulates work experience, improves his qualifications, which requires accounting and appropriate incentives.

2. In the manufacture of products, material and information factors of production, money capital are consumed, the cost of which is transferred to the manufactured product, forming the main production costs.

3. At the same time, each worker realizes the energy expended by him in the corresponding products of production in the form of added value. The specific nature of the movement in the value of invested labor transforms the original labor into wages workers and business profits. Moreover, both parts of the added value are historical, objective factors in the movement of labor and capital, each of which is embodied in the manufactured product, service in the form of its costs (costs), value. This serves as one of the material bases for the price of the created product, service, work performed.

4. There is a formation of appropriate production costs that can ensure the existence and development of this economic system, the constant renewal of its circulation. The implementation of this function predetermines the movement of money capital at the productive stage of the circulation, which is manifested primarily in the accounting function of money. The main functional role of money capital in the productive stage of its movement is a clear accounting of the labor expended in all forms of its existence - living, material, informational, monetary.

The next stage in the circulation of capital is the stage of realization of commodity capital C' — M'. As a result of productive consumption, a product or service is created that has a certain utility (use value) and individual value, the value of which is largely determined by individual costs. The function of this stage of the movement of commodity capital is: the sale of the created goods on the market; determination of the social efficiency of a given capital by the ratio of individual production costs and social assessment in the form of a price formed in society under the influence of total production costs, the ratio of supply and demand for a given product, etc., the conditions for sale on the market. At this stage, the primary distribution of the cost of the created product is also carried out. The magnitude of production costs makes it possible, first of all, to allocate a compensation fund, i.e. the amount of money capital needed to replace the expended resources in order to maintain a given economic system. In addition, the accumulation fund needs to be allocated, without which the development of the system, and hence its normal existence, is impossible. The rest of the amount should be divided between the enterprise and other subjects of society (the state, banks, insurance companies, etc.).

An important function of the movement of commodity capital is to satisfy the needs of the buyer. This is the main purpose and condition of its normal circulation. Only a specific consumer, having bought these products, services, ensures the transformation of commodity capital back into money capital, thereby creating the possibility of resuming the next cycle of capital movement, its existence and development. In the process of implementation, not only the utility of this product is determined, but also its social value, which determines the effectiveness of the circulation of capital. In the process of realizing commodity capital, the amount of profit, the rate of movement of capital and the total mass of profit are determined, which ensures the conditions for circulation, the competitiveness of this capital, its interaction with other similar capitals within the national and international systems, the degree of return on capital in relation to capital employed in other industries. This, in turn, determines the fate of capital accumulation, its further dynamics, and influences the processes of buying and selling an existing company, its market. Thus, the use value (utility of an enterprise, firm), based on the specific characteristics of capital, largely depends on the rationality of its reproduction, which is manifested in the level of profitability. The value of property, which is the basis of capital, cannot be guided only by the value of the means of labor (fixed capital, funds). These are just elements of capital. Capital is a reproducing, organically integral system. It is capital as a system that serves as the basis for the market valuation of an enterprise operating on the sale and purchase market. And here the basis for evaluating capital is its performance. The fact is that none of the elements of capital, no matter how great the role in reproduction, can serve as the only basis for evaluation.

Due to the continuity of the production process, the circuits of funds follow one after another, making a revolution.

The turnover of funds is their circulation, considered not as a separate act, but as a periodically repeating process, as a result of which the entire value of the advanced value returns completely to its original form.

The turnover of funds is the period during which the funds themselves are reproduced, i.e. the entire advanced capital involved in the reproduction process is returned. The return of the entire value of the advanced capital occurs as a result of a series of circuits that make up the turnover of funds. The process of capital turnover shows the specifics of the movement of capital in the time of production and circulation.

The economic basis of turnover is the time of production, i.e. time of productive use of all factors of production, all functional forms of capital. In time, first, a product is created; secondly, the bulk of its value is produced; third, predetermined life cycle products, and consequently - the dynamics of the entire process of capital movement, which has its own characteristics, composition, structure.

The time of production is heterogeneous in its economic content, the impact on the creation of the product, the formation of its costs (cost), the dynamics of capital movement. In the time of production, we can distinguish: 1) labor time, i.e. the time of the direct impact of the worker on the object of labor, the time of the direct creation of products, the implementation of leading technological processes; 2) the time of breaks in work, which is also heterogeneous. It includes the time of technological interruptions necessary for production: the time of ripening of grain, fruits, preparation for production, improvement of control operations, etc. This is the time when the use value of the product is created and improved, its value is formed. Part of the breaks is the result of a violation of the technological process; downtime, repairs (unforeseen), conversations, smoke breaks, etc. waste of production time, reducing labor productivity, increasing costs; 3) Inventory time is a significant proportion of production time. The difference in the turnover of enterprises, based on the timing of production cycles, necessitates the creation of stocks, among which factory, intercompany, shop and operating ones can be distinguished. Recent inventory is usually defined as work in progress. Scientific and technological progress in the field of production, delivery, management can significantly reduce the time spent by factors of production in stocks. At this time, they occupy space, labor, tie up the funds of the enterprise, but do not create anything. Moreover, the size of reserves determines the rate of turnover of capital, and hence its efficiency. An increase in inventories slows down the movement of capital, its profitability.

The circulation time includes: 1) the time spent by the finished product in the warehouse of the enterprise. During this period, consumer properties of products are maintained, finished products are assembled, a so-called “transit” batch of products is formed, i.e. the quantity required to load a wagon, trailer, train, etc.; 2) the time of transportation of products to the consumer, due to different distances from the supplier-consumer, road conditions, etc.; 3) the time of sale of finished products, i.e. its transformation from a commodity form into a monetary one. This time largely depends on the demand for the product, marketing activities manufacturer and other conditions; 4) the time of acquisition of new stocks of production factors. In the process of turnover of individual capitals, each of them continuously passes through the time of production and the time of circulation, while remaining an element of the integral system of individual production capital.

The velocity of circulation of capital is calculated as the number of turnovers made during the year:

(5)

where P- number of revolutions;

O- unit of measure of capital turnover (year);

T- time of turnover of this capital (in months). The turnover of capital as an indicator characterizes the ratio between the volume of sales and invested capital, that is, it assesses the degree to which net invested assets generate sales:

(6)

The simplest indicator of this type is the turnover ratio working capital, equal to the quotient of dividing the cost of products sold (sales proceeds) for a given period by the average balance of working capital for the same period:

(7)

(8)

Turnover ratios are of great importance for assessing financial condition enterprises, since the rate of transformation working capital in the form of money has a direct impact on the solvency of the enterprise. In addition, an increase in the rate of turnover of funds, other things being equal, reflects an increase in the investment attractiveness of the enterprise.

The ratio of working capital and the amount of short-term liabilities links the amount of operating capital and the solvency of the entrepreneur. Operating capital is the sum of the excess of working capital over short-term debt obligations:

(9)

(10)

The system of indicators varies depending on sectoral structures, the nature of production, the needs for detailed accounting of capital turnover, for example, in audit control.

2. FORMS AND METHODS OF TRADE ORGANIZATION

2.1. Wholesale

The main participants in the commodity market - manufacturers, intermediaries, consumers of products - must be equal partners, which is manifested in such a form of commodity relations as wholesale trade, which can actively regulate the accumulation and movement of products in time and space.

Wholesale trade covers essentially the entire set of commodity resources, which are both means of production and commodities. As a rule, in wholesale trade, goods are purchased in large quantities. Wholesale purchases are carried out by intermediary organizations for the purpose of subsequent resale to grass-roots wholesale organizations, enterprises retail. In most cases, wholesale trade is not related to the sale of products to specific end consumers, i.e. it allows manufacturers to market products through intermediaries with minimal direct contact with consumers. In the commodity market, wholesale trade is an active part of the sphere of circulation.

In addition, wholesale trade is an important lever for maneuvering material resources, helps to reduce excess stocks of products at all levels and eliminate the shortage of goods, and takes part in the formation of regional and sectoral commodity markets. Through wholesale trade, the influence of the consumer on the producer increases, there are real opportunities to achieve a match between supply and demand, to provide each consumer with the opportunity to purchase products within their financial capabilities and in accordance with their needs.

In turn, the manufacturer himself selects the consumer, which means that he himself must determine the range and volumes of products produced for the market based on the current situation.

Wholesale trade is a form of relations between enterprises and organizations, in which economic relations for the supply of products are formed by the parties independently. It influences the system of economic relations between regions and industries, determines the ways of movement of goods in the country, due to which the territorial division of labor is improved, and proportionality is achieved in the development of regions. For a rational distribution of the trading environment, wholesale trade must have specific data on the current state and future changes in situations in regional and sectoral markets.

The main tasks of wholesale trade are 1:

marketing study of the market, supply and demand for products for industrial purposes and consumer goods;

placement of production of goods in the range, quantity and quality required by the consumer;

timely, complete and rhythmic provision of goods in a wide range of intermediary, retail businesses, consumers;

organization of storage of commodity stocks;

organization of systematic and rhythmic import and export of goods;

ensuring the priority of the consumer, strengthening its economic impact on the supplier, depending on the reliability of economic ties, the quality of the products supplied;

ensuring the stability of partnerships in economic relations, interconnection in all time categories (long-term, medium-term, current, operational);

organization of the systematic delivery of goods from the regions of production to the area of ​​consumption;

widespread use of economic methods of regulation of the entire system of relationships between suppliers, intermediaries, consumers; reduction of total costs associated with the promotion of goods from manufacturers to consumers.

Wholesale trade connects practically all sectors of the economy, all enterprises and organizations engaged in material production and commodity circulation. It includes the stages of promotion of goods from manufacturers to retailers, and in the case of trade in industrial and technical products - directly to consumer enterprises. There are the following forms of wholesale trade: direct links between manufacturers and buyers; through intermediary organizations and enterprises; commercial contacts of market participants.

Direct ties in economic relations between producers and buyers of goods are practiced during transit (carriage) deliveries of a batch of products.

Economic relations for the supply of products can be short-term up to a year and long-term. A quick change in the range of products, a high rate of renewal of its range, and a one-time nature of consumption require short-term economic ties, but c. In most cases, long-term relationships are more cost-effective. With long-term economic relations, the supplier and the buyer are given the right to determine the range and types, delivery times, quality of the products supplied, liability and material remuneration for fulfilling the terms of supply. Such connections provide the parties with direct contact, allow to interconnect the frequency of delivery, reduce the time for agreeing on the terms of the range, additional technical requirements. Consumers can encourage producers to produce high-quality products, and producers interested in marketing products can provide various assistance and services to consumers.

The organization of direct long-term economic relations allows:

release the parties from the annual drawing up of the supply contract (the contract is drawn up for several years);

periodically adjust the assortment and quarterly delivery dates;

To work out the technology of manufacturing products and thereby improve its quality;

coordinate production schedules with interested enterprises;

to reduce terms of submission of specifications;

reduce paperwork in the area of ​​circulation.

Wholesale trade through intermediary organizations and enterprises (wholesale stores and bases, small wholesale and company stores, etc.) is appropriate for buyers who purchase products on a one-time basis or in volumes less than transit norms.

With warehouse space, warehouse technological equipment(racks, containers, bunkers, tanks, etc.) and lifting and transport vehicles (forklifts, cranes, conveyors, etc.), intermediary enterprises organize the acceptance, sorting, storage, and release of goods to customers. In addition, these enterprises provide customers with various services (preparation of products and consumption, commercial information, transport, forwarding, leasing, etc.).

Commercial contacts of market entities are of several types.

So, at present, direct commodity exchange - barter transactions - is very common. In this case, agreements are used on the supply of a specific type of product from one enterprise to another, and vice versa. In barter transactions, as a rule, there is an exchange in kind. In the course of the sale of goods, competitive bidding may be appointed, while the sellers determine the terms of trade, give a description of the goods or services in writing. The buyer, having studied the proposals, chooses the best in his opinion.

Auction trading is becoming widespread, in which the seller, in order to obtain the greatest profit, uses the competition of buyers present at the sale. An auction sale can be carried out by a seller or an intermediary organization specializing in this type of trade. The auction offers goods both in large lots (wholesale trade) and individual items (retail trade). Public auctions are held at a predetermined time in a special place. The organization of the auction includes the preparation, inspection of goods by potential buyers, the actual auction, execution and execution of auction transactions.

A significant role in wholesale trade is given to the commodity exchange. On the exchange, goods are sold without inspection, trade transactions are not concluded. Commodity exchanges carry out the purchase and sale of not goods as such, but contracts for their supply. At the same time, free purchase and sale of contracts is carried out (the buyer is free to choose the seller, the seller - the buyer). Transactions are concluded only by professional intermediaries - brokers. Basic market prices are set by the exchange quotation and are formed under the influence of real supply and demand ratios. The buyer gives the broker an instruction to complete an exchange transaction, which determines a specific product, its delivery time, and price.

The possibility of establishing commercial contacts between the manufacturer and potential buyers is created by wholesale fairs. The wholesale purpose of fairs is to establish direct business contacts between market entities (manufacturers, intermediaries, buyers) interested in selling and purchasing
specific commercial product.

2.2. Retail trade network

In the process of product distribution from manufacturers to consumers, the final link that closes the chain of economic relations is retail trade. At retail material resources move from the sphere of circulation to the sphere of collective, individual, personal consumption, i.e. become the property of consumers. This happens through buying and selling, as consumers purchase the goods they need in exchange for their cash income. Here, starting opportunities are created for a new cycle of production and circulation, since the commodity is converted into money.

Retail trade includes the sale of goods to the public for personal consumption, organizations, enterprises, institutions for collective consumption or economic needs. Goods are sold mainly through retailers and Catering. At the same time, consumer goods are sold from the warehouses of manufacturers, intermediary organizations, company stores, procurement centers, workshops, ateliers, etc.

Retail trade performs a number of functions:

explores the situation that has developed in the commodity market;

determines the supply and demand for specific types of goods;

searches for goods required for retail trade;

carries out the selection of goods, their sorting in the preparation of the required assortment;

pays for goods received from suppliers;

conducts operations for the acceptance, storage, labeling of goods, sets prices for them;

provides suppliers, consumers with forwarding, consulting, advertising, information and other services.

Retail trade, taking into account the specifics of customer service, is divided into stationary, mobile, parcel.

Stationary commercial network- the most common, includes both large modern, technically equipped stores, and stalls, tents, kiosks, vending machines. At the same time, self-service stores are distinguished, in which the buyer has free access to goods. A variety of stationary trade are also stores of the "shop-warehouse" type; the goods in them are not laid out on showcases, shelves, which significantly reduces the cost of their loading, unloading, stacking, so the sale in them is carried out at more low prices. Such stores operate, as a rule, on the outskirts of large cities.

Stores selling goods from catalogs are being created. Such trade is based on the preliminary selection of goods. Catalogs can be issued to potential buyers who have visited the store or sent to them by mail. The buyer, having studied the catalogs, having selected the goods, sends an order indicating his details to the store by mail (or by teletype, telephone). The store decides to ship the goods to the buyer. If there is a showroom in the store, the buyer can make a remote order from the catalog or visit the store and personally select the product he needs.

Considerable potential has the organization of the sale of goods through vending machines. They are convenient because they can work around the clock, without sales staff. Machines are installed inside the store or outside it (on the streets, train stations, cafes, hotel lobbies, etc.)

The subject of trade is usually a certain range of consumer goods (drinks, sandwiches, chewing gum, cigarettes, stationery, postal envelopes, postcards, etc.).

The mobile trading network contributes to the approach of the goods to the buyer and its prompt service. This trade can be delivery using vending machines, wagons, as well as delivery using trays and other simple devices. A variation of this type of trade is the direct sale at home. At the same time, sales agents of manufacturers, marketing, intermediary and trade enterprises deliver and sell products directly to the buyer.

Parcel trade is engaged in providing the population, enterprises, organizations with books, stationery, audio and video recordings, radio and television equipment, and medicines. With the help of this form of trade, consumers can also receive some products for industrial purposes (spare parts, tools, rubber products, hardware, bearings, etc.).

The structure of retail trade takes into account the assortment feature. Goods are usually combined into appropriate groups (subgroups) on the basis of production origin or consumer purpose. In retail trade, in this regard, there are different kinds shops.

Specialized stores are engaged in the sale of goods of one specific group (furniture, radio equipment, electrical goods, shoes, fabrics, clothing, milk, bakery, confectionery, etc.).

Highly specialized stores sell goods that are part of a product group (subgroup) (men's clothing, work clothing, silk fabrics, etc.).

Combination stores sell goods of several groups (subgroups) that reflect the commonality of demand or satisfy the corresponding range of consumers (motorcycle goods, religious goods, books and posters, bakery and confectionery products, wine, fruits, furs and hats, radio and television goods, dishes). household goods, etc.).

Department stores sell products from many product groups in specialized sections.

Mixed stores sell goods of various groups, both food and non-food, without forming specialized stores.
sections.

Capital has many broad and narrow definitions. It is traditionally divided into main and circulating, and according to the areas of functioning - into production (industrial), trade, financial (loan).

Capital (originally - the main property, the main amount - one of the most important categories of economic science, an indispensable element of a market economy.

Capital is a certain amount of goods in the form of material, monetary and intellectual means used as a resource in further production. Therefore, capital is the sum of so-called capital goods, i.e. goods to produce other goods. Bricks (they will build a house), machine tools (they will be used to make parts for future passenger cars), a TV set (it will play a TV show), etc. can be considered a capital good.

The historical forms of the existence of capital from the time of the formation of commodity production were: merchant's capital (in the form of merchant's capital), historically the oldest free form of capital, usurious, and then industrial.

Among the theories of capital and profit, the most famous are the labor theory, the theory of abstinence, the theory of capital as an income-generating good.

According to the economic definition, capital is divided into real (physical, production), i.e. in the form of means of production, and money, i.e. in financial form, and sometimes they also allocate commodity capital, i.e. capital in the form of commodities.

Trading profit , the profit received from the sale of goods due to the difference between the purchase and sale prices. Under conditions of simple commodity production
from trade profits were attracted mainly on the basis of non-equivalent exchange due to the relative underdevelopment of commodity circulation, the disunity of markets, the multiplicity of prices for homogeneous products, etc.

In capitalist commodity production, commercial profit. acts as part of the total surplus value created by the labor of wage workers in the sphere of material production and appropriated by the capitalists operating in trade. On the surface of the phenomenon, it appears as the result of the sale of goods at prices above value. In reality, the sphere of circulation can be an independent source of profit only to the extent that the processes of production continue in it. The act of circulation itself is connected not with self-expansion, but with a change in the forms of value. Commercial profit is the product of the redistribution of surplus value between industry and trade by the capitalists.
LOAN CAPITAL AND INTEREST

The deepening of the social division of labor and the development of commodity-money relations led to an increase in the scale of production and sales markets to such a level that the marketing of products became more complicated and the process of combining the functions of managing the production of products and their sale became more complicated. The successful promotion of goods to the markets increasingly required special knowledge, the maintenance of trade establishments and other costs for the formation of market infrastructure, which became ineffective for use by an individual industrialist. The diversion of significant resources to trade slowed down the turnover of industrial capital and reduced the rate of profit. The development of market relations objectively required the activity of a special group of qualified specialists who, by providing trade services, served the process of market circulation of goods of many industrialists with their advance capital. So there were economic conditions and needs for the activity of a special type of social capital - trading capital, which became available in the sphere of circulation in order to carry out trading operations. Trade entrepreneurs became the owners of this capital.

Merchant capital became the historical foundation of commercial capital, which in the early stages of the development of the market environment was an integral part of industrial capital, contributed to its initial accumulation and the formation of the capitalist mode of production. The real separation of merchant capital from industrial capital is due to its functions: the implementation of trade operations that required knowledge of the state of the market and the appropriate costs for bringing goods to consumers; the realization of value and surplus value embodied in commodities; creation of part of the surplus value in the form of trade profit.

These functions are successfully implemented by merchants due to the presence of special premises and equipment in them, the specialization of employees in performing special functions, studying the market and taking into account its structure and demand dynamics, forecasting market fluctuations and developing opportunities to influence it, strengthening the relationship between the production of goods and their consumption. The result of the market activity of merchants was the reduction of distribution costs and the time of delivery of goods to consumers and the stimulation of deepening the social division of labor, specialization of production and expansion of the market environment. The cumulative effect of the activity of commercial capital not only accelerated the turnover of industrial and, in general, of all social capital, but also indirectly created the conditions for the production of part of the value in the sphere of circulation.

By transferring the sales functions of merchants, industrialists were freed from the advance payment of production elements of commercial capital, which accelerated the turnover of production capital and increased its profitability. Freed from the sale of goods and related costs, industrialists through wholesale marketing operations ceded a certain part of the added value to their own benefit. It became a certain part of trading profit, and transactions: T "- G" began to mean the sale of goods for entrepreneurs and the transformation of commodity capital into a monetary form. Much faster than the transformation of the elements of productive capital into the form of money increased the production of value and surplus value.

For industrialists wholesale trade products to merchants means its sale. But the general process of bringing goods to consumers occurs only when they pass from the sphere of circulation into the sphere of personal or industrial consumption. After all, buying goods from entrepreneurs, merchants serve only the first stage of the circulation of industrial capital (G - C). The stage of sale of goods (C - G") means the sale of goods to direct consumers. The movement of advanced commercial capital, completing the final sale of goods, carries out a special cycle: G - C - G". It certifies that commercial capital is a relatively independent form of social capital, operates only in two forms - commodity and money, and in its circulation goes through two stages of circulation - the purchase of goods (G - C) and their sale (C - G "). a specific function is to serve the sale of goods.At the same time, one merchant is able to simultaneously serve the needs of many industrialists.Moreover, the interaction of merchant capital with industrial capital reduces the time of rotation of both separate parts of social capital, and creates conditions for reducing the share of capital in the sphere of circulation, and therefore increases production size.

at the same time, the separation of commercial capital from industrial capital increases the gap between production and consumption. A whole series of intermediary transactions arise between the consumer and the producer: the industrialist sells the manufactured product to the wholesaler, the latter to the small wholesaler, and the latter to the retailer. In this movement of goods, the industrialist does not interact with the end consumer and does not know the real demand for goods. His reaction to the state of the market is limited only by the demand of various groups of merchants, who, moreover, widely use credit for the purchase of goods, although they have not yet sold the previously purchased goods. For such a state of sales, industrial entrepreneurs, even in periods of reduced overall demand, continue to increase production, the volume of which already exceeds the amount of effective demand. Thus, conditions are created for the overproduction of the mass of commodities and the periodic onset of economic crises.

The two stages of the circulation of commercial capital, associated with the acquisition and sale of consignments of goods, express different economic relations, which are realized by the specialization of merchants in wholesale and retail trade. Wholesale trade means the sale of large quantities of goods by one owner of the goods to another. Both industrialists and merchants take part in it. As a rule, wholesale trade takes place at commodity exchanges, fairs and auctions by concluding contracts for the sale of exhibited samples, assortment and quality standards of goods. As a result of the auction, a significant mass of goods sold on wholesale markets, has not yet entered the sphere of consumption. The seller undertakes to deliver a certain quantity of a standard product within a specified period and at an agreed price.

Wholesale operations are carried out by large wholesale firms that buy and resell goods to other enterprises and industrial companies. Often a complex system of goods movement is created, covering the submission of orders, cargo handling, storage and transportation. That is why wholesale sales actually exceed retail turnover by dozens of times, covering both consumer goods and industrial goods.

Retail trade ensures the transition of goods into the sphere of consumption and their sale to direct consumers. It carries out the refinement, sorting and packaging of consumer goods, their storage and pricing. The structure, volumes and dynamics of the development of retail trade are determined by the achieved level and structure of production of consumer goods that accumulate in market funds, and the structure of effective demand of the population. The main directions of its development are characterized by the growth in sales of a wide range of goods in large department stores and their numerous branches owned by trading firms. Stores as retailers perform the following functions: commercial, associated with the purchase of goods, the formation of their assortment and servicing the needs of customers; marketing - the study of demand, advertising, the formation of consumer needs; technological - acceptance and storage of goods, their display and release; economic - pricing, payments, settlements, accounting; social - the realization of the income of the population and the satisfaction of its needs. The number of stores and their quality condition determine the throughput of retail trade.

The specialization of trade enterprises contributes to the rationalization of trade operations, increases the level of labor productivity in the field of trade, creates conditions for the mechanization of warehouse work, the introduction of self-service methods for customers and the introduction of other improvements. In addition to trade in stores, the methods of serving consumers by door-to-door trade, which is especially convenient for servicing buyers in remote regions and villages, telephone purchases of goods and the use of the Internet have been widely developed.

In many countries of the world, a significant place in consumer service is occupied by cooperative trade in two forms - consumer and supply and marketing cooperation. Cooperative organizations are public organizations that enjoy legally defined tax incentives and state support, therefore they are able to sell goods to consumers at preferential prices. Consumer cooperation mainly brings together the middle class of society and other consumers who are interested in using public principles cooperation and bulk purchases goods from manufacturers, which are then sold to direct consumers at lower prices than in company stores. Supply and marketing cooperatives unite small commodity producers in order to increase their profitable activities in the acquisition of the necessary means of production and in the marketing of products. The development of cooperative forms of trade is also facilitated by the use of cooperative credit at a lower interest rate and the satisfaction of other economic and social needs.

Modern processes of globalization stimulate the development of various forms international trade and organizations that act with the aim of adopting the same type of rules and trade and economic relations. The most famous world organizations within the United Nations are: UNCITRAL - UN Commission on International Trade Law, UNCTAD - Conference on Trade and Development, UNIDROIT - International Institute for the Unification of Private Law. A special role in international trade is played by the World Trade Organization (WTO), whose rules and regulations Ukraine joined in 2008, and the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), which unites national business organizations and chambers of commerce. In addition to world trade organizations, numerous international organizations of a regional type, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations are actively involved in improving international trade.

Trade between buyers and sellers different countries consists of the export of goods to other countries - exports and their import from other countries - imports. The growth of exports has a positive effect on the production and employment of the exporting country, and imports increase aggregate demand and increase national income. The volumes and dynamics of exports and imports for a certain period are reflected in the state of the country's trade balance: the excess of the value of exports over the value of imports gives an active trade balance. If the value of imports exceeds exports, then the country has a passive trade balance. The nature of the trade balance largely reflects the economic condition of the country and is one of the important indicators of the level of dependence of the economy on foreign markets, the state of the situation and international competition.

The labor of workers employed in trade is productive, since it ensures the movement and reproduction of part of the total product and capital. In the sphere of trade, the process of production continues and a surplus product is created in the form of trade profit.

Trade profit - income created by the labor of trade workers, as well as as a result of the redistribution of part of the income of various segments of the population, is appropriated by trading firms after the sale of goods and services.

At first glance, the functioning of trading capital reduces the selling price of industrial products sold to wholesalers. But in fact, the wholesale price means the transfer of a part of the surplus product created in the sphere of production to merchant capitalists at the price of production, which includes the costs of production (C.c) and the average income of entrepreneurs on advanced industrial capital (D). Merchants, while selling goods to consumers, allegedly add a trade markup to the cost of goods. But the final price is in fact the cost of the commodity, which also contains the average profit of traders (b) and takes the form:

Price of goods = Bv + P + b.

that is, the entrepreneurs sold their products at the production price, and the merchant capitalists sold them to the final consumers at the cost. The appropriation of trade profit becomes possible as a result of the redistribution of the social value of the mass of commodities as a result of intersectoral competition and the principle: for equal capital - the same profit.

The maintenance of the continuity of the sale of goods requires not only the periodic advance of capital for the purchase of goods, but also the need to cover distribution costs, which are divided into additional distribution costs, net distribution costs. The additional costs of circulation are similar in nature to the costs of production, because they are associated with the continuation of the production process in the sphere of circulation. Work employed workers in their operations is as productive as industrial workers. It preserves the created products and increases their readiness for consumption, so the additional distribution costs are reimbursed to traders from cash proceeds after the sale of goods.

The net distribution costs include direct costs for the sale and purchase of goods, calculations, the study of the dynamics of demand and prices, the organization of advertising, etc. In general, they are unproductive, therefore they are compensated at the expense of the totality of the social surplus product. If the net costs of circulation were compensated from commercial profits, then merchant capitalists would receive a lower rate of profit than industrialists, and every industrialist would be forced to spend a part of his productive capital on stocks of commodities and other costs of circulation. Taken together, the outlay of productive capital would be much greater than that of specialized trading capital, which would cause a significant drop in average profit.