International trade: theory, development, regulation structure. Classical theories of international trade The first theory of international trade was

Mercantilist theory developed and implemented in XVI-XVIII centuries, is the first of theories of international trade.

The supporters of this theory believed that the country should restrict imports and try to produce everything by itself, as well as encourage the export of finished goods in every possible way, seeking an inflow of currency (gold), that is, only exports were considered economically justified. As a result of the positive trade balance, the flow of gold into the country increased the opportunities for capital accumulation and thereby contributed to the country's economic growth, employment and prosperity.

Mercantilists did not take into account the benefits that countries receive in the course of the international division of labor from the import of foreign goods and services.

According to the classical theory of international trade emphasizes that “the exchange is favorable for each country; every country finds an absolute advantage in it ", the necessity and importance of foreign trade.

For the first time, the policy of free trading was defined A. Smith.

D. Ricardo developed the ideas of A. Smith and argued that it is in the interests of each country to specialize in production in which the relative benefit is greatest, where it has the greatest advantage or the least weakness.

Ricardo's reasoning found its expression in comparative advantage theory(comparative production costs). D. Ricardo proved that international exchange is possible and desirable in the interests of all countries.

J.S. Mill showed that, according to the law of supply and demand, the exchange price is set at such a level that the aggregate export of each country makes it possible to cover its aggregate imports.

According to Heckscher-Ohlin theories countries will always seek to covertly export surplus factors of production and import scarce factors of production. That is, all countries seek to export goods that require significant costs factors of production, which they have in relative abundance. As a result the Leontief paradox.

The paradox is that, using the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, Leontiev showed that the American economy in the post-war period specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor than capital.

Comparative advantage theory was developed by taking into account the following circumstances affecting international specialization:

heterogeneity of factors of production, primarily the labor force, differing in the level of qualifications;
role natural resources that can be involved in production only in conjunction with large amounts of capital (for example, in the extractive industries);
influence on the international specialization of foreign trade policies of states.

The state can restrict imports and stimulate production within the country and the export of products of those industries where they are intensively used relatively scarce factors of production.

Michael Porter's theory of competitive advantage

In 1991, the American economist Michael Porter published a study titled "Competitive Advantages of Countries", published in Russian under the title "International Competition" in 1993. In this study, a completely new approach to the problems of international trade has been worked out in sufficient detail. One of the prerequisites for this approach is the following: Firms, not countries, compete on the international market. In order to understand the role of the country in this process, it is necessary to understand how an individual firm creates and maintains a competitive advantage.

Success in the foreign market depends on a correctly chosen competitive strategy. Competition implies constant changes in the industry, which significantly affects the social and macroeconomic parameters of the home country, so the state plays an important role in this process.

The main unit of competition for M, Porter is the industry, i.e. a group of competitors that produce goods and provide services and directly compete with each other. The industry produces products with similar sources of competitive advantage, although the boundaries between industries are always rather vague. To choose the firm's competitive strategy there are two main factors in the industry.

1. Industry structures, in which the firm operates, i.e. features of competition. Competition in an industry is influenced by five factors:

1) the emergence of new competitors;

2) the emergence of substitute goods or services;

3) the ability of suppliers to bargain;

4) the ability of buyers to bargain;

5) the rivalry of existing competitors among themselves.

These five factors determine the profitability of an industry, as they affect the foams set by firms, their costs, capital expenditures, and more.

As new competitors emerge, the overall profitability potential of the industry diminishes as they bring new manufacturing capacity into the industry and seek market share, and as substitute products or services appear, the price that a firm can charge for its product is limited.

Suppliers and buyers, by bargaining, gain their own benefits, which can lead to a decrease in the company's profits -

The price to be paid for competitiveness when competing with other firms is either additional costs or a decrease in price, and as a result, a decrease in profits.

The importance of each of the five factors is determined by its main technical and economic characteristics. For example, the ability of buyers to bargain depends on how many buyers the firm has, how much of the sales falls on one buyer, whether the price of the product is a significant part of the buyer's total costs, and the threat of new competitors on how difficult it is for a new competitor to “penetrate” the industry. ...

2. The position of the firm in the industry.

A firm's position in the industry is primarily determined by competitive advantage. A firm is ahead of its competitors if it has a stable competitive advantage:

1) lower costs, indicating the firm's ability to develop, produce and sell a comparable product at less cost than competitors. Selling a product at the same or approximately the same price as competitors, the firm in this case makes a large profit.

2) differentiation of goods, that is, the ability of the firm to meet the needs of the buyer, offering goods or more High Quality, or with special consumer properties, or with extensive after-sales service capabilities.

The competitive advantage gives you higher productivity than the competition. Another important factor affecting a firm's position in an industry is the scope of competition, or the breadth of purpose that a firm is targeting within its industry.

Competition does not mean equilibrium, but constant change. Each industry is constantly being improved and updated. Moreover, the home country plays an important role in stimulating this process. Home country - is the country where the strategy, main products and technology are developed and where work force with the necessary skills.

M. Porter identifies four properties of a country that form the environment in which local firms compete and that affect its international success (Figure 4.6.). Dynamic formation model competitive advantages industries can be represented as a national diamond.

Figure 4.6. Determinants of a country's competitive advantage

Countries are most likely to succeed in industries where the components of the national diamond are mutually reinforcing.

These determinants, each individually and all together as a system, create the environment in which firms in a given country are born and operate.

Countries achieve success in certain industries due to the fact that the environment in these countries is developing most dynamically and, constantly posing challenges to firms, makes them better use the existing competitive advantages.

Advantage on every determinant is not a prerequisite for competitive advantage in an industry. It is the interaction of advantages across all determinants that provides self-reinforcing winning points that are not available to foreign competitors.

Each country, to one degree or another, possesses the factors of production necessary for the activities of firms in any industry. The theory of comparative advantage in the Heckscher-Ohlin model is devoted to the comparison of available factors. The country exports goods, in the production of which various factors are intensively used. However, factors. as a rule, they are not only inherited, but also created, therefore, for obtaining and developing competitive advantages, it is not so much the stock of factors at the moment that is important, but the speed of their creation. In addition, an abundance of factors can undermine a competitive advantage, and a lack of them can induce renewal, which can lead to long-term competitive advantage. At the same time, the endowment with factors is quite important, therefore this is the first parameter of this component of the "diamond".

Endowment with factors

Traditionally, the economic literature distinguishes three factors: labor, land and capital. But their influence is now more fully reflected in a slightly different classification:

· Human resources, which are characterized by the quantity, qualifications and cost of labor, as well as the duration of normal working hours and work ethics.

These resources are divided into numerous categories, since each industry requires a specific list of specific categories of workers;

· Physical resources, which are determined by the quantity, quality, availability and cost of land, water, minerals, forest resources, sources of electricity, etc. These can also include climatic conditions, geographic location and even time zone;

· A resource of knowledge, that is, a set of scientific, technical and commercial information that affects goods and services. This stock is concentrated in universities, research organizations, data banks, literature, etc .;

· Monetary resources, characterized by the amount and value of capital that can be used to finance industry;

Infrastructure, including the transport system, communication system, postal services, transfer of payments between banks, healthcare system, etc.

The combination of factors applied varies from industry to industry. Firms achieve competitive advantage when they have cheap or high quality factors at their disposal, which are important when competing in a particular industry. Thus, the location of Singapore on an important trade route between Japan and the Middle East has made it the center of the ship repair industry. However, obtaining a competitive advantage based on factors depends not so much on their availability as on their effective use, since MNEs can provide missing factors by purchasing or locating activities abroad, and many factors relatively simply move from country to country.

Factors are divided into basic and developed, general and specialized. The main factors include natural resources, climatic conditions, geographic location, unskilled labor, etc. They are received by the country through inheritance or with little investment. They are of little importance to a country's competitive advantage, or the advantage they create is unsustainable. The role of the main factors decreases due to a decrease in the need for them or due to their increased availability (including as a result of the transfer of activities or purchases abroad). These factors are important in the extractive industries and v industries related to agriculture, Developed factors include modern infrastructure, highly skilled labor, etc.

International trade theories

It is these factors that are most important, since they allow you to achieve a higher level of competitive advantage.

According to the degree of specialization, factors are divided into general ones, which can be applied in many industries, and specialized ones. Specialized factors form a more solid and lasting basis for competitive advantage than general factors.

The criteria for dividing factors into basic and developed, general and specialized must be considered in dynamics, since they change over time. Factors differ depending on whether they arose in a lyonian way or created artificially. All factors contributing to the achievement of a higher level of competitive advantage are artificial. Countries succeed in the industries in which they are best able to create and improve the necessary factors.

Demand conditions (parameters)

The second determinant of national competitive advantage is the demand in the domestic market for goods or services offered by this industry. Influencing the economies of scale, demand in the domestic market determines the nature and speed of innovation. It is characterized by: structure, volume and nature of growth, internationalization.

Firms can achieve a competitive advantage given the following key characteristics of the demand structure:

· A significant share of domestic demand falls on global market segments;

· Buyers (including intermediaries) are picky and demanding, which forces firms to raise the standards of product manufacturing quality, service and consumer properties of goods;

· The need in the home country arises earlier than in other countries;

· The volume and nature of growth in domestic demand allows firms to gain a competitive advantage if there is a demand abroad for a product that is in great demand in the domestic market, and there is also a large number of independent buyers, which creates a more favorable environment for renewal;

· Domestic demand is growing rapidly, which stimulates the intensification of capital investment and the speed of renewal;

· The internal market is quickly saturated, as a result, competition becomes tougher, in which the strongest survive, which forces them to enter the external market.

The impact of demand parameters on competitiveness also depends on other parts of the diamond. Thus, without strong competition, a broad domestic market or its rapid growth does not always stimulate investment. Without the support of the relevant industries, firms are unable to meet the needs of discerning buyers, etc.

Related and supporting industries

The third determinant that determines the national competitive advantage is the presence in the country of supplying industries or related industries that are competitive in the world market,

In the presence of competitive supplier industries, the following are possible:

· Efficient and quick access to expensive resources, such as equipment or skilled labor, etc.;

· Coordination of suppliers in the domestic market;

· Assisting the innovation process. National firms benefit most when their suppliers are competitive in the global marketplace.

The presence in the country of competitive related industries often leads to the emergence of new highly developed types of production. Related refers to industries in which firms can interact with each other to form a value chain, as well as industries that deal with complementary products such as computers and software. Interaction can take place in the field of technology development, production, marketing, service. If there are related industries in the country that can compete in the world market, access to information exchange and technical interaction opens up. Geographic proximity and cultural affinity lead to more active interchange than with foreign firms.

Success in the Myronian market of one industry may lead to the development of the production of additional goods and services. However, the success of supplying and related industries can affect the success of national firms only if the rest of the diamond is positively affected.

LECTURES ON THE COURSE "WORLD ECONOMY".FROLOVA T.A.

Topic 1: THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE 2

1. The theory of comparative advantage 2

2. Neoclassical theories 3

3. Heckscher-Ohlin theory 3

4. Leontief paradox 4

5. Alternative theories of international trade 4

Topic 2. WORLD MARKET 6

1. The essence of the world economy 6

2. Stages of the formation of the world economy 6

3. The structure of the world market 7

4. Competition in the global market 8

5. State regulation of world trade 9

Topic 3. WORLD MONEY SYSTEM 10

1. Stages of development of the world monetary system 10

2. Exchange rates and currency convertibility 12

3. State regulation of the exchange rate 14

4. Balance of payments 15

Topic 4: INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC INTEGRATION 17

1. Forms of economic integration 17

2. Forms of capital movement 17

3. Consequences of Export and Import of Capital 18

4. Labor migration 20

5. State regulation of labor migration 21

Topic 5. GLOBALIZATION AND PROBLEMS OF THE WORLD ECONOMY 22

1 Globalization: The Entity and the Challenges It Creates 22

3. International economic organizations 23

Topic 6. SPECIAL ECONOMIC ZONES (SEZ) 25

1.Classification of FEZ 25

3. Benefits and phases life cycle SEZ 26

Topic 1: THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE

1. The theory of comparative advantage

The theory of international trade went through a number of stages in its development along with the development of economic thought. However, their main questions were and remain the following: what lies at the heart of the international division of labor? Which international specialization is most effective for countries?

The foundations of the theory of international trade were laid in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. English economists Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Smith in his work "Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples" showed that countries are interested in the free development of international trade, because can benefit from it, whether they are exporters or importers. He created the theory of absolute advantage.

Ricardo, in his work "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation", proved that the principle of absolute advantage is only a special case of the general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative advantage.

A country has an absolute advantage if there is a commodity which, per unit of cost, it can produce more than another country.

These advantages can, on the one hand, be generated by natural factors - special climatic conditions, the availability of natural resources. Natural benefits play a special role in agriculture and extractive industries.

On the other hand, benefits can be acquired, i.e. due to the development of technology, the improvement of the qualifications of workers, the improvement of the organization of production.

In conditions when there is no foreign trade, each country can consume only those goods and only the amount that it produces.

The relative prices of goods in the domestic market are determined by the relative costs of their production. The relative prices for the same product produced in different countries are different. If this difference exceeds the cost of transporting goods, then there is an opportunity to profit from foreign trade.

For trade to be mutually beneficial, the price of goods on the foreign market must be higher than the domestic price in the exporting country and lower than in the importing country.

Basic theories of international trade

The benefit that countries receive from foreign trade will consist in an increase in consumption, which may be due to 2 reasons:

changes in consumption patterns;

specialization of production.

As long as differences remain in the ratios of domestic prices between countries, each country will have comparative advantage, i.e. she will always find a product whose production is more profitable at the existing ratio of costs than the production of others.

The total volume of output will be greatest when each product is produced by the country in which the opportunity costs are lower. The directions of world trade are determined by relative costs.

2. Neoclassical theories

Modern Western economists have developed Ricardo's theory of comparative costs. The most famous is the opportunity cost model, the author of which is the American economist G. Haberler.

The model of the economy of 2 countries in which 2 goods are produced is considered. Production capability curves are assumed for each country. The best technology and all resources are considered to be used. In determining the comparative advantage of each country, the basis is the volume of production of one good, which must be reduced to increase the production of another good.

This model of the division of labor is called neoclassical. But it is based on a number of simplifications. It comes from the presence of:

only 2 countries and 2 products;

free trade;

labor mobility within the country and immobility (no overflow) by countries;

fixed production costs;

lack of transportation costs;

no technical changes;

complete interchangeability of resources in their alternative use.

3. Heckscher-Ohlin theory

In the 30s. XX century Swedish economists Eli Heckscher and Bertel Olin created their own model of international trade. By this time, great changes had taken place in the system of the international division of labor and international trade. The role of natural differences as a factor of international specialization has noticeably decreased, and industrial goods began to prevail in the exports of developed countries. The Heckscher-Ohlin model is intended to explain the reasons for international trade in manufactured goods.

in the production of various goods, factors are used in different proportions;

the relative endowment of countries with factors of production is not the same.

Hence follows the law of proportionality of factors: in an open economy, each country tends to specialize in the production of a commodity that requires more factors, with which the country is relatively better endowed.

International exchange is the exchange of abundant factors for rare ones.

Thus, surplus factors are exported in a hidden form and scarce factors of production are imported, i.e. the movement of goods from country to country compensates for the low mobility of factors of production on the scale of the world economy.

In the process of international trade, the prices of factors of production are equalized. Initially, the price of a factor in excess will be relatively low. The surplus of capital leads to specialization in the production of capital-intensive goods, the flow of capital into export industries. The demand for capital increases, therefore, the price of capital increases.

If there is a surplus of labor in the country, then labor-intensive goods are exported. The price of labor (wages) also increases.

4. The Leontief paradox

Vasily Leontiev studied in Berlin after graduating from Leningrad University. In 1931 he emigrated to the United States and began teaching at Harvard University. In 1948 he was appointed Director of the Economic Research Service. Developed a method of economic analysis "input-output" (used for forecasting). In 1973 he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

In 1947 Leontiev made an attempt to empirically test the conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and came to paradoxical conclusions. Examining the structure of US exports and imports, he found that relatively more labor-intensive goods predominated in US exports, while capital-intensive ones prevailed in imports.

Considering that in the postwar years in the United States, capital was a relatively surplus factor of production, and the level of wages was significantly higher than in other countries, this result contradicted the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and therefore was called the Leontief paradox.

Leontiev hypothesized that in any combination with a given amount of capital, 1 man-year of American labor is equivalent to 3 man-years of foreign labor. He suggested that higher productivity in American labor is associated with higher skill levels of American workers. Leontyev conducted a statistical test, which showed that the United States exports goods that require more skilled labor than imported ones.

This study served as the basis for the creation by the American economist D. Keesing in 1956, a model that takes into account the qualifications of the labor force. There are 3 factors involved in production: capital, skilled and unskilled labor. A relatively abundance of highly skilled labor leads to the export of goods requiring a large amount of skilled labor.

Later models of Western economists used 5 factors: financial capital, skilled and unskilled labor, land suitable for agricultural production, and other natural resources.

5. Alternative theories of international trade

In the last decades of the 20th century, significant shifts have taken place in the directions and structure of international trade, which are not always explained by the classical MT theory. Among these qualitative shifts, one should note the transformation of scientific and technological progress into a dominant factor in international trade, an increasing proportion of counter deliveries of similar industrial goods. It became necessary to take this influence into account in the theories of international trade.

Product life cycle theory.

In the mid 60s. XX century American economist R. Vernon put forward the theory of the life cycle of a product, in which he tried to explain the development of world trade in finished products on the basis of the stages of their life.

The life stage is the period of time during which a product has market viability and meets the seller's goals.

The life cycle of a product covers 4 stages:

Implementation. At this stage, the development of a new product takes place in response to an emerging need within the country. Production is of small-scale nature, requires highly skilled workers and is concentrated in the country of innovation. The manufacturer has an almost monopoly position. Only a small part of the product goes to the external market.

Height. The demand for the product is growing, its production is expanding and spreading to other developed countries. The product is becoming standardized. Competition is increasing, exports are expanding.

Maturity. This stage is characterized by large-scale production; the price factor prevails in the competition. The country of innovation no longer has competitive advantages. Production begins to move to developing countries where labor is cheaper.

Decline. In developed countries, production is declining, sales markets are concentrated in developing countries. The country of innovation becomes a net importer.

Economies of scale theory.

In the early 80s. XX century P. Krugman and K. Lancaster proposed an alternative explanation of international trade based on economies of scale. The essence of the effect lies in the fact that with a certain technology and organization of production, long-term average costs decrease as the volume of output increases, i.e. economies of scale arise from mass production.

According to this theory, many countries are provided with the main factors of production in similar proportions, and therefore it will be profitable for them to trade with each other with specialization in industries that are characterized by the presence of the effect of mass production. Specialization allows you to expand production volumes, reduce costs and prices. In order for the economies of scale to be realized, a large market is required, i.e. world.

Technological Gap Model.

Supporters of the neotechnological trend tried to explain the structure of international trade by technological factors. The main advantages are associated with the monopoly position of the innovator firm. A new optimal strategy for firms: to produce not what is relatively cheaper, but what everyone needs, but which no one can produce yet. As soon as others can master this technology - to produce something new.

The attitude towards the state has also changed. According to the Heckscher-Ohlin model, the government's job is not to interfere with firms. Neo-tech economists believe that the state should support the production of high-tech export goods and not interfere with the curtailment of outdated industries.

The most popular model is the technology gap model. Its foundations were laid in 1961 in the work of the English economist M. Posner. Later, the model was developed in the works of R. Vernon, R. Findlay, E. Mansfield.

Trade between countries can be caused by technological changes occurring in any one industry in one of the trading countries. The country is gaining a comparative advantage: new technology makes it possible to produce goods at low cost. If created New Product, then the innovative firm has a quasi-monopoly for a certain period of time, i.e. gets additional profit.

As a result of technical innovations, a technological gap has formed between countries. This gap will be gradually bridged as other countries will begin to copy the innovation of the innovating country. Posner, to explain the constantly existing international trade, introduces the concept of "innovation flow", which over time arises in different industries and different countries.

Both trading countries benefit from the innovation. As new technology spreads, the less developed country continues to gain and the more developed country loses its advantages. Thus, international trade exists even when countries are equally endowed with factors of production.

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Modern theories of the world economy

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The economies of scale theory of Krugman and Lancaster was created in the 80s of the twentieth century. This theory provides an explanation of the modern causes of world trade from the point of view of the firm's economy. The authors believe that the maximum benefit is in industries where production is carried out in large batches, because in this case there is a scale effect.

The origins of the theory of economies of scale go back to A. Marshall, who noted the main reasons for the advantages of a group of companies over an individual company. M. Camp and P. Krugman made the greatest contribution to the modern theory of economies of scale. This theory explains why there is trade between countries that are equally endowed with factors of production. Producers of such countries agree among themselves that one country receives both its own market and the market of a neighbor for free trade in any specific product, but in return gives another country a market segment for another product. And then the producers of both countries get markets for themselves with a greater capacity for absorbing goods. And their customers are cheaper goods. Because with the growth of market volumes, economies of scale begin to operate, which looks like this: as the scale of production increases, the cost of producing each unit of output decreases.

Why? Because production costs are not growing at the rate at which production volumes are growing. The reason is as follows. That part of the costs, which is called "fixed", does not grow at all, and that part, which is called "variable", grows at a lower rate than the volume of production. Because the main component in variable production costs is the cost of raw materials. And when purchasing it in larger volumes, the price per unit of goods decreases. As you know, the "more wholesale" lot, the more favorable the purchase price.

Many countries are provided with the main factors of production in similar proportions, and therefore it will be profitable for them to trade with each other with specialization in industries that are characterized by the presence of the effect of mass production. Specialization allows you to expand production volumes, reduce costs and prices.

In order for the economies of scale to be realized, the largest possible market is required, i.e. world. And then it turns out that in order to increase the volume of their market, countries with equal capabilities agree not to compete for the same products in the same markets [which leads producers to lower incomes]. On the contrary, to expand their sales opportunities for each other, providing free access to their markets to firms of partner countries, by SPECIALIZING EACH COUNTRY ON "OWN" GOODS.

It becomes profitable for countries to specialize and exchange even technologically homogeneous but differentiated products (the so-called intra-industry trade).

Vorsicht The effect of scale is observed up to a certain limit of growth of this very scale. At some point in time, gradually growing management costs become exorbitant and "eat up" the profitability of the firm from the increase in its scale. Because more and more large companies are becoming more difficult to manage.

The theory of the product life cycle. This theory as applied to explaining the specialization of countries in the world economy appeared in the 60s of the XX century. The author of this theory, Vernon, explained world trade in terms of marketing.

The fact is that a product in the process of its existence on the market goes through a number of stages: creation, maturity, decline in production and disappearance. According to this theory, industrially developed countries specialize in the production of technologically new goods, and developing countries - in the production of obsolete goods, since to create new goods it is necessary to have significant capital, highly qualified specialists, and developed science in this area. All of this is available in industrialized countries.

According to Vernon's observations, at the stages of creation, growth and maturity, the production of goods is concentrated in industrialized countries, because during this period, the product gives the maximum profit. But over time, the product becomes obsolete and goes into the stage of "decline" or stabilization. This is facilitated by the fact that goods appear - competitors of other firms, distracting demand. As a result of all this, price and profit fall.

The production of obsolete goods is now being transferred to poorer countries, where, firstly, it will become a novelty again, and secondly, its production in these countries will be cheaper. At the same stage of obsolescence of a product, a firm may sell a license to manufacture its product to a developing country.

The theory of the product life cycle is not a universal explanation of trends in the development of international trade. There are many products with a short life cycle, high transportation costs, with a narrow circle of potential consumers, etc., which do not fit into the theory of the life cycle.

But most importantly, for a long time, global corporations have been locating the production of both commodity novelties and obsolete goods in the same developing countries.

international trade

Another thing is that while the product is new and expensive, it is sold mainly in rich countries, and as it becomes obsolete, it passes to poorer countries. And in this part of his theory, Vernon is still relevant.

M. Porter's theory of competitive advantages. Another important theory explaining the specialization of countries in the world economy is M. Porter's theory of competitive advantages... In it, the author examines the specialization of countries in world trade from the point of view of their competitive advantages. According to M. Porter, for success in the world market, it is necessary to combine the correctly chosen competitive strategy of companies with the competitive advantages of the country.

Porter highlights four signs of competitive advantage:

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Topic: Classic and modern theories of world trade (Option number 9)

University: VZFEI

Year and city: Moscow 2011

Option number 9

1. Classical and modern theories of world trade. 3

2. Control test tasks. 15

3. The challenge. 16

List of used literature .. 18

1. Classical and modern theories of world trade

World trade- is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor, and expresses their mutual economic dependence.

The first attempt at a theoretical understanding of international trade and the development of recommendations in this area was the doctrine of mercantilism, which prevailed in the manufacturing period, i.e. from the XVI century. until the middle of the 18th century. when the international division of labor was mainly limited to bilateral and tripartite relations. Industry at that time had not yet broken away from the national soil, and goods were produced for export from national raw materials. So, England processed wool, Germany - linen, France - silk into linen, etc. Mercantilists adhered to the view that the state should sell as much of any goods as possible on the foreign market, and buy as little as possible. This will accumulate gold, identified with wealth. It is clear that if such a policy of refusal to import is carried out by all countries, then there will be no buyers and there will be no question of any international trade.

Classical theories of world trade

A. Smith's theory of absolute advantages

The founder of economic science, Adam Smith, in his book "A Study on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (1776), paid significant attention to the division of labor on the basis of specialization. economic activity... At the same time, A. Smith extended the conclusions about the division of labor to the world economy, for the first time theoretically substantiating the principle of absolute advantages (or absolute costs): than buying them on the side ... What appears to be reasonable in the course of action of any private family is unlikely to be unreasonable for the whole kingdom. If some foreign country can supply us with some commodity at a cheaper price than we are able to manufacture it, it is far better to buy it from her with some part of the product of our own industrial labor, applied in the area in which we have some advantage "

Thus, the essence of A. Smith's views is that the basis for the development of international trade is the difference in absolute costs. Trade will bring an economic effect if goods are imported from a country where the costs are absolutely lower, and those goods are exported whose costs in this country are lower than abroad.

D. Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage

Another classic, David Ricardo, convincingly proved that interstate specialization is beneficial not only in cases where a country has an absolute advantage in the production and sale of this product compared to other countries, i.e. it is not necessary that the costs of producing this product are less than the costs of similar products created abroad. It is quite enough, according to D. Ricardo, for this country to export those goods for which it has comparative advantages, i.e. so that for these goods the ratio of its costs to the costs of other countries would be more favorable for it than for other goods.

The theory of comparative advantage is based on a number of assumptions. It comes from the presence of two countries and two goods; production costs only in the form wages, which is also the same for all professions; ignoring differences in wage levels between countries; lack of transport costs and free trade. These initial prerequisites were necessary to identify the basic principles of the development of international trade.

Heckscher - Ohlin's Factor Correlation Theory

Further development of the classical theory of international trade is associated with the creation in the 20s. XX century Swedish economists Eli Heckscher and Bertil Olin of the theory of the ratio of factors of production. This theory is based on the same premises as the theories of absolute and comparative advantage of Smith and Ricardo. The main difference is that it proceeds from the presence of not one, but two factors of production: labor and capital. According to the views of Heckscher and Ohlin, each country is endowed with these factors of production to varying degrees, which gives rise to differences in the ratio of prices for them in countries participating in international trade. The price of capital is the interest rate, and the price of labor is wages.

The level of relative prices, i.e. the ratio of the prices of capital to labor in countries more saturated with capital will be lower than in countries with a capital deficit and relatively large labor resources. Conversely, the level of relative prices for labor and capital in countries with surplus labor resources will be lower than in other countries where they are scarce.

This, in turn, leads to a difference in the relative prices of the same goods, on which national comparative advantages depend. Hence, each country tends to specialize in the production of goods requiring more factors, with which it is relatively better endowed.

Factor price equalization theorem (Heckscher - Ohlin - Samuelson theorem)

Under the influence of international trade, the relative prices of goods involved in world trade tend to equalize. This also leads to the equalization of the ratio of prices for the factors of production used in the creation of these goods in different countries. The nature of this interaction was revealed by the American economist P. Samuelson, who proceeded from the basic postulates of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory. In accordance with the Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson theorem, the mechanism for equalizing prices for factors of production is as follows. In the absence of foreign trade, the prices of factors of production (wages and interest rates) will differ in both countries: the price of the surplus factor will be relatively lower, and the price of the scarce factor will be relatively higher.

Participation in international trade and the country's specialization in the production of capital-intensive goods lead to the flow of capital into export industries. The demand for a factor of production that is surplus in a given country exceeds the supply of the latter, and its price (interest rate) rises. On the contrary, the demand for labor, which is a scarce factor in a given country, is relatively reduced, which leads to a decrease in its price - wages.

In another country, which is relatively better endowed with labor resources, specialization in the production of labor-intensive goods leads to a significant movement of labor resources to the corresponding export sectors. An increase in the demand for labor leads to an increase in wages. The demand for capital decreases relatively, which leads to a decrease in its price - the interest rate.

The Leontief paradox

In accordance with the theory of the ratio of factors of production, the relative differences in their endowment determine the structure of foreign trade of individual groups of countries. In countries that are relatively more capital-saturated, capital-intensive goods should prevail in exports, and labor-intensive ones in imports. Conversely, in countries that are relatively more labor-intensive, labor-intensive goods will prevail in exports, and capital-intensive ones in imports.

The theory of the ratio of factors of production has been repeatedly subjected to empirical tests by analyzing specific statistics for different countries.

The most famous research of this kind was carried out in 1953 by the famous American economist of Russian origin V. Leontiev. He analyzed the structure of U.S. foreign trade in 1947 and 1951.

The post-World War II US economy was characterized by high capital saturation and relatively higher wages compared to other countries. In accordance with the theory of the ratio of factors of production, the United States of America had to export mainly capital-intensive, and import mainly labor-intensive goods.

V. Leontyev determined the ratio of capital and labor costs required for the production of export products for 1 million dollars and the same volume of imports in terms of value. Contrary to expectations, the study found that US imports were 30% more capital intensive than exports. This result became known as the "Leontief paradox".

In the economic literature, there are various explanations for the Leontief paradox. The most convincing of these is that the United States, ahead of other industrialized countries, achieved significant advantages in the creation of new knowledge-intensive goods. Therefore, in American exports, a significant place was occupied by goods in which the costs of skilled labor were relatively high, and in imports, goods that required relatively large capital expenditures, including and different kinds commodities.

The Leontief paradox warns against an overly straightforward and oversimplified use of the conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory for practical purposes.

Modern theories of international trade

The Heckscher-Ohlin theory explained the development of foreign trade by the different endowments of countries with factors of production, but in recent decades, trade between countries began to increase, where the difference in endowments of factors is small, i.e. there is a contradiction - the reasons for trade have disappeared, and trade has increased. This is due to the fact that the Heckscher-Ohlin theory was formed in those years when interindustry trade was predominant. Back in the early 1950s, the most characteristic was the exchange of raw materials from developing countries for manufacturing products of developed countries. By the beginning of the 1980s, 2/3 of exports, for example, to Great Britain, went to Western Europe and North America. In the foreign trade of industrially developed countries, the mutual exchange of manufactured products has become predominant. Moreover, these countries simultaneously sell and buy not just the products of the manufacturing industry, but the same goods by name, differing only in quality characteristics. A feature of the production of export goods in industrialized countries is the relatively high cost of R&D. These countries today increasingly specialize in the production of so-called science-intensive high-tech products.

The development of knowledge-intensive industries and the rapid growth of international exchange of their products led to the formation of theories of the neotechnological direction. This direction is a collection of separate models, partially complementing each other, but sometimes contradicting one another.

Technology gap theory

In accordance with this theory, trade between countries is carried out even with the same endowment of factors of production and can be caused by technical changes that occur in any one industry in one of the trading countries, due to the fact that technical innovations initially appear in one country, the latter gains an advantage: new technology makes it possible to produce goods at lower costs. If innovation consists in the production of a new product, then the entrepreneur in the innovating country for a certain time has the so-called "quasi-monopoly", in other words, receives additional profit by exporting a new product. Hence the new optimal strategy: to produce not something that is relatively cheaper, but something that no one else can produce yet, but is necessary for everyone or for many. As soon as others can master this technology - to produce something new and again something that is not available to others.

The emergence of technical innovations creates a "technological gap" between countries with and without these innovations. This gap will gradually be bridged as other countries are beginning to copy the innovation of the pioneering country. However, until the gap is closed, trade in new goods produced using the new technology will continue.

Product Life Cycle Theory

In the mid 60s. American economist R. Vernon put forward the theory of the product life cycle, in which he tried to explain the development of world trade in finished products on the basis of the stages of their life, i.e. the period of time during which the product is viable in the market and meets the seller's objectives.

The above theory is the most popular theory of the neotechnological direction. It attracted almost all economists, since it more accurately reflects the real state of the international division of labor in the modern period. In accordance with this theory, each new product goes through a cycle that includes the stages of implementation, expansion, maturity and aging. Each stage has a different demand and technology.

In the first stage of the cycle, there will be little demand for the product. It is presented to persons with high incomes, for whom the price does not matter much when deciding whether to purchase a product. The more people with high incomes, the more likely it is that new goods will appear on the market, the production of which requires high costs. their technology has not yet been tested. This technology involves the use of a large number of highly skilled workers. The export of new goods in the first stage will be negligible.

At the second stage - the stage of growth, the demand in the domestic market expands rapidly, the product becomes generally recognized. Serial production of large batches of new goods begins. At this stage, there is a demand for a new product abroad. Initially, it is fully satisfied by export, and then overseas production of the new product begins through the transfer of technology.

At the third stage, the demand on the domestic market is saturated. Manufacturing technology is fully standardized, allowing the use of less skilled labor, lower production costs, lower prices and maximum production of goods by firms in the innovating country and foreign companies. The latter begin to penetrate the domestic market of the country where the product appeared.

At the last stage of the cycle, the product ages, its production begins to decline. A further decline in prices no longer leads to an increase in demand, as it was at the stage of maturity.

This is the general scheme for a new product to pass its "life cycle". The theorists of this model are not limited to such general descriptions. They believe that it is possible to indicate specific countries, the conditions of which are most consistent with the production of either the latest goods, or goods that are in other stages of maturity.

Production specialization theory

In the early 80s of the XX century. American economists P. Krugman and K. Lancaster proposed an alternative to the classical explanation of the causes of international trade. According to their approach, countries with equal factor endowments will be able to maximize trade with each other by specializing in different economies of scale. The essence of this effect, well known from microeconomic theory, is that with a certain technology and organization of production, long-term average costs decrease as the volume of output increases, i.e. economies of scale arise from mass production.

In order for the effect of mass production to be realized, a sufficiently large market is obviously necessary. International trade plays a decisive role in this, since it allows the formation of a single integrated market, more capacious than the market of any single country. As a result, more products are offered to consumers and at lower prices.

The theory of international competitiveness of nations

In a separate row is the theory of M. Porter, who believes that the theories of D. Ricardo and Heckscher-Ohlin have already played a positive role in explaining the structure of foreign trade, but in recent decades they have actually lost their practical significance, since the conditions for the formation of competitive advantages have changed significantly. the dependence of the competitiveness of industries on the availability of the main factors of production in the country is eliminated. M. Porter identifies the following determinants that form the environment in which the competitive advantages of industries and firms develop:

1) factors of production of a certain quantity and quality;

2) the conditions of domestic demand for the products of this industry, its quantitative and qualitative parameters;

3) the presence of related and supporting industries that are competitive in the world market;

4) the strategy and structure of firms, the nature of competition in the domestic market.

The named determinants of competitive advantage form a system, mutually reinforcing and conditioning each other's development. Added to them are two more factors that can seriously affect the situation in the country: government actions and random events. All the listed characteristics of the economic environment, in which competitive industries can be formed, are viewed in dynamics, as a flexible developmental system.

The state plays an important role in the process of forming specific advantages of the branches of the national economy, although this role is different at different stages of this process. These can be targeted investment, export promotion, direct regulation of capital flows, temporary protection of domestic production and stimulation of competition in the early stages; indirect regulation through the tax system, development of market infrastructure, information base for business in general, research funding, support educational institutions etc. Experience shows that in none of the countries the creation of competitive industries was complete without the participation of the state in one form or another. This is all the more true for transitional economic systems because the relative weakness of the private sector does not allow it to short term independently form the necessary factors of competitive advantage and gain a place in the world market.

Theory of foreign trade activities of firms

In this theory, the object of analysis is not a single country, but an international firm. The objective basis of this approach is the fact generally recognized by economic science: a significant part of foreign trade operations is actually an intra-firm exchange: intra-firm ties currently account for about 70% of all world trade in goods and services, 80-90% of licenses and patents sold, 40% of capital exports ...

Intercompany trade is based on the exchange of semi-finished products and spare parts used in the assembly of a product intended for sale on the world market. At the same time, foreign trade statistics indicate that foreign trade is rapidly expanding between countries where the largest transnational corporations are located.

So, the development and complication of international trade was reflected in the evolution of theories explaining the driving forces of this process. V modern conditions differences in international specialization can only be analyzed on the basis of the totality of all key models of the international division of labor.

If we consider world trade in terms of its development trends, then there is, on the one hand, a clear increase in international integration, the gradual erasure of borders and the creation of various interstate trade blocs, on the other hand, the deepening of the international division of labor, the gradation of countries into industrialized and backward ones.

In historical terms, one cannot fail to note the growing influence of Asian countries on the processes of world trade; it is quite likely that in the new millennium this region will take a leading role in the world process of production and sale of goods.

2. Control test tasks

1. Indicate the features according to which developing countries belong to the periphery of the world economy:

a) raw materials specialization;

b) low level of development of productive forces;

c) intensive type of economy;

d) the multi-structured nature of the economy with a predominance of non-market relations;

e) flexible adaptation to the world economic situation.

Answer: a), b), d).

The periphery is primarily developing countries. Since market relations in these countries are weak, the market does not stimulate the development of production, they supply mainly raw materials to the world market.

2. The main reason for the outflow of labor from Russia is:

a) foreign activities of TNCs;

b) low level of real wages in the country;

c) unemployment;

d) religious factor.

Answer: b).

The most important reason for the outflow of labor from Russia is the low level of wages. Specialists different professions go to other countries for the device on new job, in order, ultimately, to improve their material well-being, which is not easy to do in Russia.

3. Task

Two goods of the same quality - Russian and American - cost, respectively, 300 thousand rubles and 20 thousand dollars. The nominal exchange rate for the US currency is RUB 24. / 1 dollar. What is the real exchange rate?

Solution:

The general measure of a country's competitiveness in international markets is the price of a given country's product in relation to the price of a similar product in another country, taking into account the ratio of the currencies of these countries. This ratio is called the real exchange rate and is calculated as follows:

Where: P - the price of the product (or the general price level) in your country;

Р * - the price of the goods (or the general level of prices) abroad;

e is the nominal exchange rate;

ε is the real exchange rate.

ε = 1 / 24dollar / rubles * 300,000 / 20,000 = 0.625

That is, the price Russian goods is 0.625 US. That is, other things being equal, we can exchange 6 units of Russian goods for 1 unit of American goods.

Answer: The real exchange rate is 0.625

List of used literature

Kudrov V.M., World economy: textbook. - M .: Yustitsinform, 2009 - 512 p.
Malkov I. V. World economy in questions and answers: textbook. allowance. - M .: Prospect, 2004 .-- 271 p.
Polyak GB, Markova AN History of the world economy: textbook. For university students. - 3rd ed. - M .: UNITI-DANA, 2008 .-- 670 p.

In recent decades, significant shifts have taken place in the directions and structure of world trade, which do not always lend themselves to an exhaustive explanation within the framework of classical trade theories. This prompts both the further development of existing theories and the development of alternative theoretical concepts. Among such qualitative shifts, one should first of all take revenge on the transformation of technological progress into the dominant factor in world trade, the ever-increasing share in trade of counter deliveries of similar industrial goods produced in countries with approximately the same security, and a sharp increase in the share of world trade turnover accounted for by intra-firm trade.

Product life cycle theory

In the mid-1960s, the American economist R. Vernoy put forward the theory of the product life cycle, in which he tried to explain the development of world trade in finished products on the basis of the stages of their life, i.e. the period of time during which the product is viable in the market and meets the seller's objectives.

A position in an industry is determined by how a firm achieves its profitability (competitive advantage). Strength of positions in the competition is provided either by a lower level of costs than those of competitors, or by differentiation of the manufactured product (improvement of quality, creation of products with new consumer properties, expansion of after-sales service opportunities, etc.).

Success in the global market requires an optimal combination of a correctly chosen competitive strategy of the company with the competitive advantages of the country. M. Porter identifies four determinants of a country's competitive advantage. First, the availability of production factors, and in modern conditions, the main role is played by the so-called developed specialized factors (scientific and technical knowledge, highly qualified labor force, infrastructure, etc.), purposefully created by the country. Secondly, the parameters of domestic demand for the products of this industry, which, depending on its volume and structure, allows the use of economies of scale, stimulates innovation and product quality improvement, and pushes firms to enter the external market. Thirdly, the presence in the country of competitive supplier industries (which provides quick access to the required resources) and related industries producing complementary products (which makes it possible to interact in the field of technology, marketing, service, exchange information, etc.) - So In the words of M. Porter, clusters of national competitive industries are being formed. Finally, fourthly, the competitiveness of the industry depends on the national characteristics of the strategy, structure and rivalry of firms, i.e. therefore, what are the conditions in the country that determine the characteristics of the creation and management of firms, and what is the nature of competition in the domestic market.

M. Porter emphasizes that countries have the greatest chances of success in those industries or their segments where all four determinants of competitive advantage (the so-called national diamond) are most favorable. Moreover, the national rhombus is a system whose components are mutually reinforced, and each determinant affects all the others. An important role in this process is played by the state, which, pursuing a targeted economic policy, influences the parameters of factors of production and domestic demand, the conditions for the development of supplying industries and related industries, the structure of firms and the nature of competition in the domestic market.

Thus, according to Porter's theory, competition, including in the global market, is a dynamic, evolving process based on innovation and constant technology updates. Therefore, to explain the competitive advantages in the world market, it is necessary "to find out how firms and countries improve the quality of factors, increase the efficiency of their application and create new ones."

Questions of the efficiency of foreign trade are among the fundamental problems of economic theory, on which economic thought has been working over the past three centuries. The development of foreign trade is reflected in the evolution of theories, models, concepts that explain the driving forces of this process.

The first attempt to create a theory of international trade, combining trade relations with domestic economic development, was undertaken by mercantilists. The theory of mercantilism was based on the idea that the wealth of a country depends on the amount of gold and silver. In this regard, the mercantilists believed that in the field of foreign trade it is necessary to maintain an active trade balance and carry out state regulation of foreign trade in order to increase exports and reduce imports.

Mercantilist theories of international trade gave rise to a direction of economic policy that far outlived it and remains relevant today - protectionism... The policy of protectionism consists in the active protection by the state of the interests of the domestic economy, as they are understood by this or that government.

As a result of a mercantilist policy using protectionist instruments, complex systems of customs duties, taxes, and barriers were created that ran counter to the needs of the emerging capitalist economy. Moreover, the static theory of mercantilism was based on the principle of enriching one country by reducing the welfare of other nations.

The next stage in the development of the theory of international trade is associated with the name of A. Smith - the creator absolute advantage theory... A. Smith believed that the government's task is not to regulate the sphere of circulation, but to take measures to develop production on the basis of cooperation and division of labor, taking into account the support of the free trade regime. The essence of the theory of absolute advantages is that international trade is profitable if two countries trade in such goods that each produces at lower costs.

The theory of absolute advantages is only a part of the general economic doctrine of A. Smith, the ideologist of economic liberalism. From this doctrine follows the policy of free trade, opposed to protectionism.

Modern economists see the strength of the theory of absolute advantages in the fact that it shows the clear advantages of the division of labor, not only at the national level, but also at the international level. Weak side this theory: it does not explain why countries trade even in the absence of absolute advantages.

The answer to this question was found by another English economist D. Ricardo, who discovered comparative advantage law, which says: the basis for the emergence and development of international trade can serve as an exceptional difference in the costs of production of goods, regardless of absolute values.

The role and significance of the law of comparative advantage is evidenced by the fact that for many decades it remained predominant in explaining the effectiveness of foreign trade turnover and had a powerful impact on all of economic science.

However, D. Ricardo left unanswered the question of the origin of comparative advantages, which form the necessary prerequisites for the development of international trade. In addition, the constraints of this law include those assumptions that were introduced by its creator: one factor of production was taken into account - labor, production costs were considered constant, the factor of production was mobile within the country and immobilized outside of it, there were no transport costs.

During the XIX century. the labor theory of value (created by D. Ricardo and developed by K. Marx) was gradually losing its popularity, facing the competition of other teachings; at the same time, great changes took place in the system of international division of labor and international trade, caused by a decrease in the role of natural differences and an increase in the importance of industrial production. In response to the challenge of the time, neoclassical economists E. Heckscher and B. Olin created theory of factors of production: mathematical calculations on it are given by P. Samuelson. This theory can be represented by two interrelated theorems.

The first of them, explaining the structure of international trade, not only recognizes that trade is based on comparative advantage, but also deduces the reason for comparative advantage from the difference in the endowment of factors of production.

The second is factor price equalization theorem Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson - addresses the effect of international trade on factorial prices. The essence of this theorem is that the economy will be relatively more efficient by producing goods that more intensively use factors that are abundant in a given country.

The theory is limited by many assumptions. It was assumed that the returns to scale are constant, the factors are mobile within the country and immobile outside the country, the competition is perfect, there are no transport costs, tariffs and other obstacles.

It can be noted that in the field of foreign trade analysis up to the middle of the XX century. economic thought concentrated more on the study of the supply of goods and factors of production and did not pay due attention to demand due to the emphasis on the consideration of reducing the level of production costs.

The theory of comparative advantage became the starting point not only for the development of the theory of factors of production, but also for two other areas, the specificity of which is determined by the fact that they pay attention not only to supply, but also to demand.

In this context, the first direction is associated with the theory of mutual demand, created by the follower of D. Ricardo J.St. Mill, who derived the law of international value, showing at what price the exchange of goods between countries is carried out: the more external syrup for the goods of a given country and the less capital is used to produce export goods, the more favorable the terms of trade will be for the country. Further development of this theory was obtained in general equilibrium models created by A. Marshall and F. Edgeworth.

D. Ricardo's law also determined the development opportunity cost theory... The precondition for its creation was that the facts of economic life came into conflict with the labor theory of value.

In addition, replacement costs are not constant, as in the theory of comparative advantage, but growing according to a pattern known from general economic theory and in accordance with economic realities.

The foundations of the theory of opportunity costs were laid by G. Heberler and F. Edgeworth.

This theory proceeded from the fact that:

production opportunity curves (or transformation curves) have a negative slope and show that the actual ratio of the output of different goods for each country is different, which prompts them to trade with each other;
if the curves match, then trading is based on differences in tastes and preferences;
supply is determined by the curve of the marginal level of transformation, and demand is determined by the curve of the marginal level of substitution;
the equilibrium price at which trade is conducted is determined by the ratio of relative world supply and demand.

Thus, comparative advantages are proven not only from the labor theory of value, but also from the theory of opportunity cost. The latter showed that there is no full specialization of the country in the field of foreign trade, since after reaching an equilibrium price in mutual trade, further specialization of each of the countries loses its economic meaning.

Despite the fundamental nature and evidence presented, the theories considered were constantly tested on the basis of various empirical data. The first study of the theory of comparative advantage was carried out in the early 1950s by McDougall, who confirmed the law of comparative advantage and showed a positive relationship between the equation of labor productivity in individual industries and the share of their products in total exports. In the context of globalization and internationalization of world economic relations, the basic theories cannot always explain the existing multivariance of international trade. In this regard, an active search continues for new theories that provide answers to various questions of international trade practice. These studies can be divided into two large groups. The first, using a non-factorial approach, is based on the assertion that traditional theories require clarification in particulars concerning the number of factors of production and their quality.

Within the framework of this direction, the following models, hypotheses and concepts have been developed and proposed.

The research carried out by V. Leontyev in 1956 served as the basis for the emergence of the model of skilled labor, developed by D. Keesing, who proved that not two, but three factors are used in production: skilled, unskilled labor and capital. In this regard, the unit costs for the production of export goods are calculated for each of the groups separately.
P. Samuelson's theory of specific factors of production showed that international trade is based on differences in relative prices for goods, which in turn arise due to different degrees of supply of factors of production, and factors specific to the export sector develop, and factors specific to sectors competing with imports are shrinking.
An important place in this direction is given to the issue of distribution of income from international trade. This question was developed in the theorems of Stolper-Samuelson, Rybchinskiy, Samuelson-Jones.
The Swedish economist S. Linder, who created the theory of overlapping demand, suggests that the similarity of tastes and preferences enhances foreign trade, since countries export goods for which there is a large internal market. The limitation of this theory is due to the fact that it manifests itself with an even distribution of income between separate groups countries.

The second group of studies, formed on the basis of a neo-technological approach, analyzes situations that are not covered by the presented theories, rejects the position about the decisive importance of differences in factors or technologies, and requires new alternative models and concepts.

Within the framework of this direction, the advantages of a country or a company are determined not by the focus of factors and not by the intensity of the factors expended, but by the monopoly position of the innovator in technological terms. A number of new models have been created here that develop and enrich the theory of international trade from the side of both demand and supply.

1. Scale effect theory justified in the writings of P. Krugman: the effect of scale allows you to explain trade between countries, equally endowed with factors of production, similar goods, subject to imperfect competition. At the same time, the external scale effect implies an increase in the number of firms producing the same product, while the size of each of them remains unchanged, which leads to perfect competition. Internal economies of scale contribute to imperfect competition, where producers can influence the price of their goods and generate increased sales by lowering prices. In addition, a special place is given to the analysis of large firms - transnational companies (TNCs), due to the fact that a firm that produces products in the most cost-effective scale occupies a dominant position in the world market, and world trade tends to gravitate towards giant international monopolies.

The neotechnical school associates the main advantages with the monopoly positions of the innovator (country) and proposes a new strategy: to produce not what is relatively cheaper, but what is necessary for everyone or many and that no one else can produce yet. At the same time, many economists - supporters of this direction, in contrast to supporters of the model of comparative advantages, believe that the state can and should support the production of high-tech export goods and not interfere with the curtailment of the production of other, obsolete ones.

2. Intra-industry trade model based on the postulates of the theory of economies of scale. Intra-industry exchange provides additional benefits from foreign trade relations due to market expansion. In this case, a country can simultaneously reduce the number of goods it produces, but increase the number of goods consumed. By producing a smaller set of goods, a country realizes economies of scale, increasing productivity and reducing costs. P. Krutman and B. Balassa made a significant contribution to the development of the theory.

Intra-industry exchange is associated with similarity theory, which explains the cross-trading of comparable goods from the same industry. In this regard, the role of the acquired advantages associated with the development and implementation of new technologies increases. According to the theory of similarity of countries in this situation, a developed country has a great opportunity to adapt its products to the markets of similar countries.

3. Supporters dynamic models as the initial theoretical justification, they use both the Ricardian explanation of the international exchange of technological differences and the theses of J. Schum-Peter on the decisive role of innovation. They believe that countries differ not only in the availability of productive resources, but also in the level of technical development.

One of the first dynamic models can be attributed to the theory of the technological gap by M. Posner, who believed that as a result of the emergence of technological innovations, a "technological gap" is formed between countries that have them and do not.

4. Life cycle theory R. Vernona explains the specialization of countries in the production and export of the same product at different stages of maturity. In the Asia-Pacific region, where there is a continuous process of successive passage of certain phases of economic development, the concept of "flying geese" by K. Akamatsu took shape and was confirmed by practice, according to which a hierarchy of international exchanges is formed corresponding to different levels of development of groups of countries.

It examines the relationship between two groups of characteristics;

the evolution of imports - domestic production - exports;
the transition from consumer goods to capital-intensive goods from simple industrial products to more complex ones.

At the present stage, special attention is paid to the problem of combining the interests of the national economy and large firms - participants in international trade. This direction solves the problems of competitiveness at the state and firm level. Thus, M. Porter calls the factor conditions, demand conditions, the state of the service industries, the firm's strategy in a certain competitive situation as the main criteria for competitiveness. At the same time, M. Porter notes that the theory of comparative advantage is applicable only to basic factors such as undeveloped physical resources and unskilled labor. In the presence of developed factors (modern infrastructure, information exchange on a digital basis, highly educated personnel, research of individual universities), this theory cannot fully explain the specifics of foreign trade practice.

M. Porter also puts forward a rather radical position, according to which in the era of transnationalization in general, one should not talk about trade between countries, since it is not countries that trade, but firms. Apparently, in relation to our time, when different countries to one degree or another, protectionist mechanisms are used, when brands like “made in USA”, “Italian furniture”, “white assembly”, etc. still remain attractive, this situation is still premature, although it clearly reflects a real trend.

5. Complements the neotechnological anatomy of the factors of the international division of labor I. B. Kreivis's concept, which uses the concept of price elasticity of demand and supply, which measures the sensitivity of demand to price changes. According to Cravis, each country imports goods that it is either unable to produce itself, or it can produce in limited quantities and the supply of which is elastic, and at the same time exports goods with highly elastic production that exceeds local needs. As a result, the country's foreign trade is determined by the comparative level of elasticity of the national and external supply of goods, as well as by the higher rates of technological progress in export industries.

In conclusion, we note that at the present stage, the theory of international trade pays equal attention to both supply and demand, strives to explain the practical issues that arise in the course of foreign trade activities between countries, modifying the international trade system, and are formed on the basis of the criterion for specifying factors and their quantity. as well as the monopoly position of the innovator in terms of technology.

The deepening of the processes of globalization in world economic relations confirms the viability of all theories, and practice - the need for their constant modification.

Foreign trade theories

Foreign trade theories are designed to provide answers to the following questions.

What is the basis of MRI?
What determines the effectiveness of international specialization for individual countries?
What are firms guided by in their behavior regarding their inclusion in international exchange?

Historically, the first theory of foreign trade is mercantilism (XVI-XVII centuries). This theory was based on the fact that the wealth of a nation is determined by the volume of gold. Therefore, the task of nation states is to sell more and buy less, thus facilitating the movement of gold, which served as world money, from one country to another. Mercantilists viewed international trade as a zero-sum game, where a country's gain inevitably meant a loss for its trading partner. They emphasized the need to implement a foreign economic policy that would contribute to the achievement of a positive trade balance.

Classical theories of foreign trade

A. Smith's theory of absolute advantages proceeds from the fact that the welfare of a nation depends on the degree of deepening of the division of labor, including international.

A. Smith came to the conclusion that each country should specialize in the production and export of goods, in the production of which it has absolute advantages, that is, a country in which the production of a certain economic good is cheaper should not only focus on meeting the needs for this good own residents, but also ensure the export of this good to other countries, in which its production is more expensive. The selection of industries and types of production in which the country will specialize is made not by the government, but by the invisible hand of the market. Each nation benefits from international trade, since it necessarily has a certain absolute advantage in the production of certain economic benefits.