Basic theories of international trade briefly. Theories of international trade. Modern theories of international trade

Mercantilist theory developed and put into practice in XVI-XVIII centuries, is first of theories of international trade.

Supporters of this theory believed that the country should limit imports and try to produce everything itself, as well as encourage the export of finished products in every possible way, seeking an influx of currency (gold), i.e., only exports were considered economically justified. As a result of a positive trade balance, the inflow of gold into the country increased the opportunities for capital accumulation and thus contributed to the economic growth, employment and prosperity of the country.

Mercantilists did not take into account the benefits that countries receive in the course of the international division of labor from the import of foreign goods and services.

According to the classical theory of international trade emphasizes that "the exchange is favorable for each country; every country finds in it an absolute advantage, the necessity and importance of foreign trade is proved.

For the first time, the free trade policy was defined A. Smith.

D. Ricardo developed the ideas of A. Smith and argued that it is in the interests of each country to specialize in production, in which the relative benefit is the greatest, where it has the greatest advantage or the least weakness.

Ricardo's reasoning found expression in comparative advantage theory(comparative production costs). D. Ricardo proved that international exchange is possible and desirable in the interests of all countries.

J. S. Mill showed that, according to the law of supply and demand, the exchange price is set at such a level that the total exports of each country can cover its total imports.

According to Heckscher-Ohlin theories countries will always seek to covertly export surplus factors of production and import scarce factors of production. That is, all countries tend to export goods that require significant inputs of production factors, which they have in relative abundance. As a result Leontief's paradox.

The paradox is that, using the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, Leontief showed that the American economy in the postwar period specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor than capital.

Theory of comparative advantage was developed by taking into account the following circumstances affecting international specialization:

1. the heterogeneity of production factors, primarily the labor force, which differs in skill level;
2. the role of natural resources, which can only be used in production in conjunction with large amounts of capital (for example, in extractive industries);
3. influence on the international specialization of foreign trade policy of states.

The state can restrict imports and stimulate domestic production and exports of products of those industries that are intensively used relatively scarce factors of production.

Michael Porter's Theory of Competitive Advantage

In 1991, the American economist Michael Porter published a study entitled "Competitive Advantages of Countries", published in Russian under the title "International Competition" in 1993. In this study, a completely new approach to the problems of international trade has been worked out in sufficient detail. One of the prerequisites for this approach is the following: Firms compete in the international market, not countries. To understand the country's role in this process, it is necessary to understand how an individual firm creates and maintains competitive advantage.

Success in the foreign market depends on the right competitive strategy. Competition involves constant changes in the industry, which significantly affects the social and macroeconomic parameters of the home country, so the state plays an important role in this process.

According to M, Porter, the main unit of competition is the industry, i.e. a group of competitors that produce goods and services and directly compete with each other. An industry produces products with similar sources of competitive advantage, although the boundaries between industries are always quite blurry. Choice firm's competitive strategy There are two main factors influencing the industry.

1. industry structures, in which the company operates, i.e. features of competition. Five factors influence competition in the industry:

1) the emergence of new competitors;

2) the emergence of substitute goods or services;

3) the ability of suppliers to bargain;

4) the ability of buyers to bargain;

5) rivalry between already existing competitors.

These five factors determine the profitability of an industry as they affect the fees charged by firms, their costs, capital investments, etc.

The entry of new competitors reduces the overall profit potential of the industry as they bring new capacity into the industry and seek market share, and the introduction of substitute products or services limits the price a firm can charge for its product.

Suppliers and buyers, bargaining, benefit, which can lead to a decrease in the company's profits -

The price to pay for competitiveness when competing with other firms is either additional costs or lower prices, and as a result, a reduction in profits.

The value of each of the five factors is determined by its main technical and economic characteristics. For example, the ability of buyers to bargain depends on how many buyers the firm has, how much sales are per buyer, whether the price of the product is a significant part of the buyer's total costs, and the threat of new competitors depends on how difficult it is for a new competitor to “penetrate” into the industry. .

2. The position the firm occupies in the industry.

The firm's position in the industry is determined primarily by competitive advantage. A firm outperforms its rivals if it has a stable competitive advantage:

1) lower costs, indicating the ability of the company to develop, produce and sell a comparable product at a lower cost than competitors. Selling goods at the same or approximately the same price as competitors, the company in this case receives a large profit.

2) differentiation of goods, i.e. the ability of the company to meet the needs of the buyer, offering a product of either higher quality, or with special consumer properties, or with extensive after-sales service.

Competitive advantage gives higher productivity than competitors. Another important factor influencing a firm's position in an industry is the scope of competition, or the breadth of purpose a firm is pursuing within its industry.

Competition does not mean equilibrium, but constant change. Every industry is constantly being improved and updated. Moreover, the home country plays an important role in stimulating this process. Home country - it is a country where strategy, core products and technology are developed and where a workforce with the necessary skills is available.

M. Porter identifies four properties of the country that form the environment in which local firms compete and influence its international success (Figure 4.6.). The dynamic model of the formation of the competitive advantages of the industry can be represented as a national rhombus.

Figure 4.6. Determinants of a Country's Competitive Advantage

Countries are most likely to succeed in those industries where the components of the national diamond are mutually reinforcing.

These determinants, individually and collectively as a system, create the environment in which firms in a given country are born and operate.

Countries achieve success in certain industries because the environment in these countries is developing most dynamically and, by constantly setting challenges for firms, makes them better use their competitive advantages.

Advantage on every determinant is not a prerequisite for competitive advantage in the industry. It is the interaction of advantages across all determinants that provides self-reinforcing winning moments that are not available to foreign competitors.

Every country, to varying degrees, possesses the factors of production necessary for the activities of firms in any industry. The theory of comparative advantage in the Heckscher-Ohlin model is devoted to the comparison of available factors. The country exports goods in the production of which various factors are intensively used. However, the factors as a rule, they are not only inherited, but also created, therefore, in order to obtain and develop competitive advantages, it is not so much the stock of factors at the moment that is important, but the speed of their creation. In addition, an abundance of factors can undermine competitive advantage, and a lack of factors can spur innovation, which can lead to long-term competitive advantage. At the same time, endowment with factors is quite important, so this is the first parameter of this component of the "rhombus".

endowment with factors

Traditionally, economic literature distinguishes three factors: labor, land and capital. But their influence is now more fully reflected by a slightly different classification:

· human resources, which are characterized by the quantity, qualifications and cost of the labor force, as well as the length of normal working hours and work ethic.

These resources are divided into numerous categories, since each industry requires a certain list of specific categories of workers;

physical resources, which are determined by the quantity, quality, availability and cost of land, water, minerals, forest resources, electricity sources, etc. They can also include climatic conditions, geographical location and even time zone;

· a resource of knowledge, i.e. a set of scientific, technical and commercial information that affects goods and services. This stock is concentrated in universities, research organizations, data banks, literature, etc.;

· monetary resources, characterized by the amount and cost of capital, which can be used to finance the industry;

Infrastructure, including the transport system, communication system, postal services, transfer of payments between banks, healthcare system, etc.

The set of applied factors in different industries varies. Firms achieve a competitive advantage if they have at their disposal cheap or high-quality factors that are important when competing in a particular industry. Thus, the location of Singapore on an important trade route between Japan and the Middle East made it the center of the ship repair industry. However, obtaining a competitive advantage based on factors depends not so much on their availability as on their effective use, since MNCs can provide missing factors by purchasing or locating activities abroad, and many factors move relatively easily from country to country.

Factors are divided into basic and developed, general and specialized. The main factors include natural resources, climatic conditions, geographical location, unskilled labor, etc. The country receives them either by inheritance or with little investment. They are of little value to a country's competitive advantage, or the advantage they create is not sustainable. The role of the main factors is reduced due to a decrease in the need for them or due to their increased availability (including as a result of the transfer of activities or purchases from abroad). These factors are important in the extractive industries and in industries related to agriculture. Developed factors include modern infrastructure, highly skilled workforce, etc.

Theories of international trade

It is these factors that are most important, as they allow you to achieve a higher level of competitive advantage.

According to the degree of specialization, factors are divided into general, which can be applied in many industries, and specialized. Specialized factors form a more solid and long-term basis for competitive advantage than general ones.

The criteria for dividing factors into basic and developed, general and specialized must be considered in dynamics, since they change over time. The factors differ depending on whether they arose naturally or were created artificially. All factors that contribute to the achievement of higher levels of competitive advantage are artificial. Countries succeed in the sectors in which they are best able to create and improve the necessary factors.

Conditions (parameters) of demand

The second determinant of national competitive advantage is domestic demand for the goods or services offered by that industry. Influencing economies of scale, demand in the domestic market determines the nature and speed of innovation. It is characterized by: structure, volume and nature of growth, internationalization.

Firms can achieve competitive advantage with the following basic characteristics of the demand structure:

· a significant share of domestic demand falls on global market segments;

Buyers (including intermediaries) are choosy and make high demands, which forces firms to raise standards for the quality of product manufacturing, service and consumer properties of goods;

the need for the home country arises earlier than in other countries;

The volume and nature of growth in domestic demand allows firms to gain a competitive advantage if there is demand abroad for a product that has a strong demand in the domestic market, and there are also a large number of independent buyers, which creates a more favorable environment for renewal;

· domestic demand is growing rapidly, which stimulates the intensification of capital investment and the rate of renewal;

· the domestic market is quickly saturated, as a result, competition is becoming tougher, in which the strongest survive, which forces them to enter the foreign market.

The influence of demand parameters on competitiveness also depends on other parts of the diamond. Thus, without strong competition, a wide domestic market or its rapid growth does not always stimulate investment. Without the support of relevant industries, firms are unable to meet the needs of discerning customers, etc.

Related and supporting industries

The third determinant that determines national competitive advantage is the presence in the country of supplier industries or related industries that are competitive in the world market,

In the presence of competitive industries-suppliers, it is possible:

• efficient and fast access to expensive resources, such as equipment or skilled labor, etc.;

coordination of suppliers in the domestic market;

· Facilitating the process of innovation. National firms benefit most if their suppliers are globally competitive.

The presence in the country of competitive related industries often leads to the emergence of new highly developed types of production. related Industries are those in which firms can interact with each other in the process of forming a value chain, as well as industries that deal with complementary products, such as computers and software. Interaction can take place in the field of technology development, production, marketing, service. If there are related industries in the country that can compete in the world market, access to the exchange of information and technical interaction is opened. Geographical proximity and cultural affinity lead to a more active interchange than with foreign firms.

The success of one industry in the world market can lead to the development of the production of additional goods and services. However, the success of supplier and related industries can affect the success of national firms only if the other components of the diamond are positively affected.

SUMMARY OF LECTURES ON THE COURSE "WORLD ECONOMY".FROLOVA T.A.

Topic 1. THEORIES OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE 2

1. Comparative advantage theory 2

2. Neoclassical theories 3

3. Heckscher-Ohlin theory 3

4. Leontief's paradox 4

5. Alternative theories of international trade 4

Topic 2. WORLD MARKET 6

1. The essence of the world economy 6

2. Stages of formation of the world economy 6

3. Structure of the world market 7

4. Competitive struggle in the world market 8

5. State regulation of world trade 9

Topic 3. WORLD MONETARY SYSTEM 10

1. Stages of development of the world monetary system 10

2. Exchange rates and currency convertibility 12

3. State regulation of the exchange rate 14

4. Balance of payments 15

Topic 4. INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC INTEGRATION 17

1. Forms of economic integration 17

2. Forms of capital flow 17

3. Consequences of the export and import of capital 18

4. Labor force migration 20

5. State regulation of labor migration 21

Topic 5. GLOBALIZATION AND PROBLEMS OF THE WORLD ECONOMY 22

1.Globalization: essence and problems generated by it 22

3. International economic organizations 23

Topic 6. SPECIAL ECONOMIC ZONES (SEZ) 25

1. Classification of FEZ 25

3. Benefits and phases of the FEZ life cycle 26

Topic 1. THEORIES OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE

1. The theory of comparative advantage

Theories of international trade have gone through a number of stages in their development along with the development of economic thought. However, their main questions were and remain the following: what underlies the international division of labor? What international specialization is most effective for countries?

The foundations of the theory of international trade were laid at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. English economists Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Smith in his work "Research on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" showed that countries are interested in the free development of international trade, because. can benefit from it whether they are exporters or importers. He created the theory of absolute advantage.

Ricardo, in his work Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, proved that the principle of absolute advantage is only a special case of the general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative advantage.

A country has an absolute advantage if there is a good that, per unit cost, it can produce more than another country.

These advantages can, on the one hand, be generated by natural factors - special climatic conditions, the availability of natural resources. Natural advantages play a special role in agriculture and extractive industries.

On the other hand, the benefits may be acquired, ie. due to the development of technology, advanced training of workers, improvement of the organization of production.

In conditions where there is no foreign trade, each country can consume only those goods and only that amount of them that it produces.

The relative prices of commodities in the domestic market are determined by their relative costs of production. The relative prices for the same product produced in different countries are different. If this difference exceeds the cost of transporting goods, then there is an opportunity to profit from foreign trade.

For trade to be mutually beneficial, the price of a good in the foreign market must be higher than the domestic price in the exporting country and lower than in the importing country.

Basic theories of international trade

The benefit that countries receive from foreign trade will be an increase in consumption, which can be due to 2 reasons:

change in the structure of consumption;

production specialization.

As long as there are differences in domestic price ratios between countries, each country will have comparative advantage, i.e. she will always find a commodity whose production is more profitable, given the existing cost ratio, than the production of the rest.

Total output will be greatest when each good is produced by the country that has the lowest opportunity cost. The directions of world trade are determined by relative costs.

2. Neoclassical theories

Modern Western economists have developed Ricardo's comparative cost theory. The most famous is the model of opportunity costs, the author of which is the American economist G. Haberler.

A model of the economy of 2 countries in which 2 goods are produced is considered. Production possibilities curves are assumed for each country. It is considered that the best technology and all resources are used. In determining the comparative advantages of each country, the production of one good is taken as the basis, which has to be reduced in order to increase the production of another good.

This model of the division of labor is called neoclassical. But it is based on a number of simplifications. It comes from having:

only 2 countries and 2 products;

free trade;

labor mobility within the country and immobility (lack of overflow) between countries;

fixed production costs;

lack of transport costs;

no technical changes;

complete interchangeability of resources in their alternative use.

3. Heckscher-Ohlin theory

In the 30s. In the 20th century, Swedish economists Eli Heckscher and Bertel Ohlin created their own model of international trade. By this time, great changes had taken place in the system of the international division of labor and international trade. The role of natural differences as a factor in international specialization has noticeably decreased, and manufactured goods began to predominate in the exports of developed countries. The Heckscher-Ohlin model is intended to explain the causes of international trade in manufactured goods.

in the production of various goods, factors are used in various proportions;

the relative endowment of countries with factors of production is not the same.

From this follows the law of proportionality of factors: in an open economy, each country tends to specialize in the production of goods that require more factors with which the country is relatively better endowed.

International exchange is the exchange of abundant factors for rare ones.

Thus, in a hidden form, surplus factors are exported and scarce factors of production are imported, i.e. the movement of goods from country to country compensates for the low mobility of factors of production on a global scale.

In the process of international trade, the prices of factors of production are equalized. Initially, the price of a factor in excess will be relatively low. Excess capital leads to specialization in the production of capital-intensive goods, the overflow of capital into export industries. As the demand for capital increases, the price of capital rises.

If there is an abundance of labor in the country, then labor-intensive goods are exported. The price of labor (wages) also increases.

4. Leontief's paradox

Vasily Leontiev, after graduating from Leningrad University, studied in Berlin. In 1931 he emigrated to the USA and began teaching at Harvard University. Since 1948, he was appointed director of the economic research service. Developed a method of economic analysis "input-output" (used for forecasting). In 1973 he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

In 1947, Leontiev made an attempt to empirically test the conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and came to paradoxical conclusions. Examining the structure of US exports and imports, he found that US exports were dominated by relatively more labor-intensive goods, while imports were dominated by capital-intensive goods.

Given that in the post-war years in the United States, capital was a relatively abundant factor of production, and the level of wages was much higher than in other countries, this result contradicted the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and therefore was called the Leontief paradox.

Leontief hypothesized that, in any combination with a given amount of capital, 1 man-year of American labor is equivalent to 3 man-years of foreign labor. He suggested that the greater productivity of American labor is due to the higher skills of American workers. Leontiev conducted a statistical test that showed that the United States exports goods that require more skilled labor than imported ones.

This study served as the basis for the creation by the American economist D. Keesing in 1956 of a model that takes into account the qualifications of the labor force. Three factors are involved in production: capital, skilled and unskilled labor. The relatively abundance of highly skilled labor leads to the export of goods that require a large amount of skilled labor.

In the later models of Western economists, 5 factors were used: financial capital, skilled and unskilled labor, land suitable for agricultural production, and other natural resources.

5. Alternative theories of international trade

In the last decades of the 20th century, significant shifts take place in the directions and structure of international trade, which are not always explained by the classical theory of MT. Among such qualitative shifts, one should note the transformation of scientific and technical progress into a dominant factor in international trade, the increasing share of counter deliveries of similar manufactured goods. There was a need to take this influence into account in the theories of international trade.

Product life cycle theory.

In the mid 60s. In the 20th century, the American economist R. Vernon put forward the theory of the product life cycle, in which he tried to explain the development of world trade in finished products based on the stages of their life.

The life stage is the period of time during which the product has viability in the market and achieves the goals of the seller.

The product life cycle covers 4 stages:

Implementation. At this stage, a new product is developed in response to an emerging need within the country. Production is small-scale, requires highly skilled workers and is concentrated in the country of innovation. The manufacturer occupies an almost monopoly position. Only a small part of the product goes to the foreign market.

Growth. Demand for the product is growing, its production is expanding and spreading to other developed countries. The product becomes standardized. Competition is growing, exports are expanding.

Maturity. This stage is characterized by large-scale production, the competitive struggle is dominated by the price factor. The country of innovation no longer has competitive advantages. Production is moving to developing countries where labor is cheaper.

decline. In developed countries, production is decreasing, sales markets are concentrated in developing countries. The country of innovation becomes a net importer.

The theory of scale effect.

In the early 80s. In the 20th century, P. Krugman and K. Lancaster proposed an alternative explanation of international trade based on the scale effect. The essence of the effect lies in the fact that with a certain technology and organization of production, long-term average costs decrease as the volume of output increases, i.e. economies of scale arise.

According to this theory, many countries are provided with the main factors of production in similar proportions, and therefore it will be profitable for them to trade among themselves if they specialize in industries that are characterized by the presence of a mass production effect. Specialization allows you to expand production volumes, reduce costs, price. In order for economies of scale to be realized, a capacious market is needed, i.e. world.

Technological gap model.

Proponents of the neo-technological direction tried to explain the structure of international trade by technological factors. The main advantages are associated with the monopoly position of the innovator firm. A new optimal strategy for firms: to produce not what is relatively cheaper, but what everyone needs, but which no one can produce yet. As soon as this technology can be mastered by others - to produce something new.

The attitude towards the state has also changed. According to the Heckscher-Ohlin model, the task of the state is not to interfere with firms. Economists of the neo-technological direction believe that the state should support the production of high-tech export goods and not interfere with the curtailment of obsolete industries.

The most popular model is the technology gap model. Its foundations were laid in 1961 in the work of the English economist M. Posner. Later, the model was developed in the works of R. Vernon, R. Findley, E. Mansfield.

Trade between countries can be driven by technological changes occurring in one industry in one of the trading countries. This country is gaining a comparative advantage: new technology makes it possible to produce goods at low cost. If a new product is created, then the innovator firm has a quasi-monopoly for a certain time, i.e. earns additional profit.

As a result of technical innovations, a technological gap has formed between countries. This gap will be gradually bridged as other countries will begin to copy the innovation of the innovator country. Posner introduces the notion of a “stream of innovation” that occurs over time in different industries and different countries to explain the constantly existing international trade.

Both trading countries benefit from the innovation. As new technology spreads, the less developed country continues to benefit, while the more developed country loses its advantage. Thus, international trade exists even with the same endowment of countries with factors of production.

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Modern theories of the world economy

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Krugman and Lancaster's theory of economies of scale was established in the 1980s. This theory provides an explanation of the modern causes of world trade from the point of view of the economics of the firm. The authors believe that the maximum benefit is available in industries where production is carried out in large quantities, because. in this case, there is an effect of scale.

The origins of the theory of economies of scale go back to A. Marshall, who noticed the main reasons for the advantage of a group of companies compared to a separate company. M. Camp and P. Krugman made the greatest contribution to the modern theory of the scale effect. This theory explains why there is trade between countries that are equally endowed with factors of production. The producers of such countries agree among themselves that one country receives both its own market and the market of a neighbor for free trade in a specific product, but in return gives another country a market segment for another product. And then the producers of both countries get markets for themselves with a greater absorption capacity of the goods. And their buyers are cheaper goods. Because with the growth of market volumes, economies of scale begin to operate, which looks like this: as the scale of production increases, the cost of producing each unit of output decreases.

Why? Because production costs are not growing at the rate at which production volumes are growing. The reason is as follows. That part of the costs, which is called "fixed", does not grow at all, and the part that is called "variables" is growing at a slower pace than production volumes. Because the main component in the variable costs of production is the cost of raw materials. And when buying it in larger volumes, the price per unit of goods decreases. As you know, the more “wholesale” the lot, the more favorable the purchase price.

Many countries are provided with the basic factors of production in similar proportions, and therefore it will be profitable for them to trade among themselves if they specialize in industries that are characterized by the presence of a mass production effect. Specialization allows you to expand production volumes, reduce costs, price.

In order for economies of scale to be realized, the most capacious market is needed, i.e. world. And then it turns out that in order to increase the volume of their market, countries of equal ability agree not to compete for the same products in the same markets [which leads producers to reduce incomes]. On the contrary, to expand their opportunities for sales from each other, providing free access to their markets for firms of partner countries, by SPECIALIZING EACH COUNTRY ON "THE OWN" PRODUCTS.

It becomes profitable for countries to specialize and exchange even technologically homogeneous, but differentiated products (the so-called intra-industry trade).

Vorsicht The scale effect is observed up to a certain limit of the growth of this very scale. At some point in time, gradually increasing management costs become exorbitant and "eat up" the firm's profitability from increasing its scale. Because ever larger companies are becoming more and more difficult to manage.

Theory of the product life cycle. This theory, as applied to explaining the specialization of countries in the world economy, appeared in the 60s of the XX century. The author of this theory Vernon, explained world trade in terms of marketing.

The fact is that a product in the course of its existence on the market goes through a number of stages: creation, maturity, decline in production and disappearance. According to this theory, industrialized countries specialize in the production of technologically new goods, while developing countries specialize in the production of obsolete goods, since in order to create new goods it is necessary to have significant capital, highly qualified specialists, and advanced science in this field. All this is available in industrialized countries.

According to Vernon's observations, at the stages of creation, growth and maturity, the production of goods is concentrated in industrialized countries, because. during this period, the product gives maximum profit. But over time, the product becomes obsolete and goes into the stage of "recession" or stabilization. This is facilitated by the fact that there are goods - competitors of other firms, diverting demand. As a result of all this, the price and profit fall.

The production of obsolete goods is now transferred to poorer countries, where, firstly, it will become a novelty again, and secondly, its production in these countries will be cheaper. At the same stage of product obsolescence, a firm may sell a license to manufacture its product to a developing country.

The product life cycle theory is not a universal explanation for the development of international trade. There are many products with a short life cycle, high transportation costs, with a narrow circle of potential consumers, etc., which do not fit into the life cycle theory.

But most importantly, for a long time now, global corporations have been placing the production of both commercial novelties and obsolete goods in the same developing countries.

international trade

Another thing is that while the product is new and expensive, it is sold mainly in rich countries, and as it becomes obsolete, it goes to poorer ones. And in this part of his theory, Vernon is still relevant.

M. Porter's theory of competitive advantages. Another important theory explaining the specialization of countries in the world economy is M. Porter's theory of competitive advantages. In it, the author examines the specialization of countries in world trade in terms of their competitive advantages. According to M. Porter, for success in the world market, it is necessary to combine the correctly chosen competitive strategy of companies with the competitive advantages of the country.

Porter highlights four signs of competitive advantage:

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Theories of international trade have undergone a certain process of development. The main questions they tried to answer were "what is the reason for the division of labor between states" and "on what basis is the most effective international specialization chosen?"

Classical theories of international trade

Theory of Comparative Advantage

The first theories were laid down by the founders of classical economic theory, Smith and Ricardo, in the 18th and early 19th centuries.

Thus, Smith laid the foundation for the theory that the reason for the development of international trade is the benefit that importers and exporters can receive from the exchange of their goods. He also developed the theory of “absolute advantage”: a country has this advantage if it has a product that, relying on its own resources, can produce one more unit than another. Such advantages can be natural (climate, soil fertility, natural resources) or acquired (technology, equipment, etc.).

The benefit that a country will receive from international trade will consist in an increase in consumption, which will occur due to a change in its structure and specialization.

Riccardo's comparative cost theory, developed and supplemented by Haberler

It considers 2 countries that produce 2 types of goods. For each country, a curve is constructed that clearly shows which production is more profitable for each country. This theory is simplified, it shows only 2 countries and 2 goods, it comes from the condition of unlimited trade and labor mobility within the country, as well as the presence of fixed production costs, the absence of transport costs and technical change. That is why the theory is considered quite illustrative, but not very suitable for reflecting the real conditions of the economy.

Heckscher-Ohlin theory

This theory, created in the 20th century, was intended to reflect the features of trade based to a greater extent on the exchange of manufactured goods (because of this, the dependence of countries' trade on their natural resources has significantly decreased). According to their theory of international trade, the differences in costs incurred by countries in the manufacture of products are explained by the fact that:

• in the production of different products, factors are used in different ratios;
• countries are very differently provided with the necessary factors of production;

From this follows the law of proportionality of factors, which reads as follows: for each state wants to specialize in the production of the goods that require the presence of those with which it is well endowed. in fact, it is an exchange of those factors that are in excess for those that are rarer for this country.

Leontief's paradox

In the late 40s of the 20th century, the economist Leontiev, while empirically testing the conclusions of the previous theory on the basis of data from the American economy, came to an unexpected paradoxical result: mainly labor-intensive products were exported to the United States, while capital-intensive products were imported. This was contrary to Heckscher-Ohlin's theory of international trade, since in the United States capital, on the contrary, was considered a much more abundant factor than labor costs. Leontiev suggested that in any combination with a given amount of capital resources, 1 man-year of American labor is equal to 3 man-years of foreign labor, which was associated with a higher qualification level of American workers. According to the statistics he collected, the United States exported goods whose production required a more skilled labor force than imported ones. Based on this study, in 1956 a model was created that took into account 3 factors: skilled labor, low-skilled labor and capital.

Modern theories of international trade

These theories try to explain the features of international trade in the modern world, which no longer obey the logic of the classical theory of international trade. This is due to the fact that it occupies an increasing place in the economy, the volume of counter deliveries of goods similar in quality is increasing.

Product life cycle theory

The life stage of a product is the period during which it has value in the market and is in demand. The stages of a product's life are product introduction, growth, maturity (sales peak) and decline. When a product ceases to satisfy the needs of its market, it begins to be exported to less

Theory of economies of scale

The main essence of this effect is that with a special technology and the level of organization of production, the average long-term costs will decrease as the volume of output of the goods increases, making savings. It is profitable to sell the surplus produced goods to other countries.

Questions of the effectiveness of foreign trade are among the fundamental problems of economic theory, on which economic thought has been working for the past three centuries. The development of foreign trade is reflected in the evolution of theories, models, concepts that explain the driving forces of this process.

The first attempt to create a theory of international trade, combining trade relations with domestic economic development, was made by mercantilists. Mercantilism theory was based on the idea that the wealth of a country depends on the amount of gold and silver. In this regard, the mercantilists believed that in the field of foreign trade it is necessary to maintain an active trade balance and carry out state regulation of foreign trade activities in order to increase exports and reduce imports.

Mercantilist theories of international trade gave rise to a direction of economic policy that has outlived it and remains relevant today - protectionism. The policy of protectionism consists in the active protection by the state of the interests of the domestic economy, as they are understood by this or that government.

As a result of the mercantilist policy, using the tools of protectionism, complex systems of customs duties, taxes, and barriers were created that ran counter to the needs of the emerging capitalist economy. Moreover, the static theory of mercantilism was based on the principle of enriching one country by reducing the welfare of other nations.

The next stage in the development of the theory of international trade is associated with the name of A. Smith - the creator absolute advantage theory. A. Smith believed that the task of the government is not to regulate the sphere of circulation, but to implement measures to develop production on the basis of cooperation and division of labor, taking into account the support of the free trade regime. The essence of the theory of absolute advantages is that international trade is profitable if two countries trade in goods that each produces at a lower cost.

The theory of absolute advantages is only part of the general economic doctrine of A. Smith, the ideologist of economic liberalism. From this doctrine follows the policy of free trade, opposed to protectionism.

Modern economists see the strength of the theory of absolute advantages in that it shows the clear advantages of the division of labor not only at the national level, but also at the international level. The weakness of this theory is that it does not explain why countries trade even in the absence of absolute advantages.

The answer to this question was found by another English economist D. Ricardo, who discovered law of comparative advantage, which says: the basis for the emergence and development of international trade can serve as an exceptional difference in the costs of production of goods, regardless of absolute values.

The role and significance of the law of comparative advantage is evidenced by the fact that for many decades it remained dominant in explaining the effectiveness of foreign trade turnover and had a strong impact on the entire economic science.

However, D. Ricardo left unanswered the question of the origin of comparative advantages, which form the necessary prerequisites for the development of international trade. In addition, the limitations of this law include those assumptions that were introduced by its creator: one production factor was taken into account - labor, production costs were considered constant, the production factor was mobile within the country and immobile outside it, there were no transportation costs.

During the 19th century the labor theory of value (created by D. Ricardo and developed by K. Marx) gradually lost its popularity, faced with competition from other teachings; at the same time, great changes took place in the system of the international division of labor and international trade, caused by a decrease in the role of natural differences and an increase in the importance of industrial production. As a response to the challenge of the time, neoclassical economists E. Heckscher and B. Olin created factor theory: mathematical calculations on it are given by P. Samuelson. This theory can be represented by two interrelated theorems.

The first of these, explaining the structure of international trade, not only recognizes that trade is based on comparative advantages, but also derives the reason for comparative advantages from the difference in endowment with factors of production.

Second - factor price equalization theorem Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson - affects the effect of international trade on factorial prices. The essence of this theorem is that the economy will be relatively more efficient by producing goods that make more intensive use of factors that are abundant in a given country.

The limitation of the theory is due to many assumptions. It was assumed that returns to scale are constant, factors are mobile inside the country and immobile outside it, competition is perfect, there are no transport costs, tariffs and other obstacles.

It can be noted that in the field of analysis of foreign trade until the middle of the 20th century. economic thought concentrated more on the study of the supply of goods and factors of production and did not pay due attention to demand in connection with the emphasis on considering the reduction in the level of production costs.

The theory of comparative advantage has become the starting point not only for the development of the theory of factors of production, but also for two other areas, the specificity of which is determined by the fact that they pay attention not only to supply, but also to demand.

In this context, the first direction is associated with the theory of mutual demand, created by the follower of D. Ricardo J.St. Millem, who derived the law of international value, showing at what price goods are exchanged between countries: the more external capital on the goods of a given country and the less capital used to produce export goods, the more favorable the terms of trade for the country will be. Further development of this theory was obtained in general equilibrium models created by A. Marshall and F. Edgeworth.

D. Ricardo's law also determined the development opportunity cost theory. The prerequisite for its creation was that the facts of economic life were in conflict with the labor theory of value.

In addition, replacement costs are not fixed, as in the theory of comparative advantage, but growing according to a pattern known from general economic theory and in accordance with economic realities.

The foundations of the theory of opportunity costs were laid by G. Haeberler and F. Edgeworth.

This theory was based on the fact that:

• production possibility curves (or transformation curves) have a negative slope and show that the actual ratio of output of different goods is different for each country, which encourages them to trade with each other;
• if the curves match, then trading is based on differences in tastes and preferences;
• supply is determined by the curve of the marginal level of transformation, and demand is determined by the curve of the marginal level of substitution;
• the equilibrium price at which trade is conducted is determined by the ratio of relative world supply and demand.

Thus, comparative advantage is proven not only from the labor theory of value, but also from the theory of opportunity cost. The latter showed that there is no complete specialization of the country in the field of foreign trade, since after reaching an equilibrium price in mutual trade, further specialization of each of the countries loses its economic meaning.

Despite the fundamental nature and the evidence presented, the considered theories were constantly tested on the basis of various empirical data. The first study of the theory of comparative advantage was carried out in the early 1950s by McDougall, who confirmed the law of comparative advantage and showed a positive relationship between the equation of labor productivity in individual industries and the share of their products in total exports. Under the conditions of globalization and internationalization of world economic relations, basic theories cannot always explain the existing multivariance of international trade. In this regard, an active search for new theories that provide answers to various questions of international trade practice continues. These studies can be divided into two large groups. The first, using a neofactorial approach, is based on the assertion that traditional theories require clarification in particular regarding the quantity of factors of production and their quality.

Within this direction, the following models, hypotheses and concepts have been developed and proposed.

1. The study carried out by V. Leontiev in 1956 served as the basis for the emergence of a skilled labor model developed by D. Kising, who proved that not two, but three factors are used in production: skilled, unskilled labor and capital. In this regard, the unit costs for the production of export goods are calculated for each of the groups separately.
2. The theory of specific factors of production by P. Samuelson showed that international trade is based on differences in relative prices for goods, which in turn arise due to varying degrees of availability of factors of production, moreover, factors specific to the export sector develop, and factors specific to the import-competing sector is shrinking.
3. An important place in this direction is given to the issue of distribution of income from international trade. This question was developed in the Stolper-Samuelson, Rybchinsky, Samuelson-Jones theorems.
4. The Swedish economist S. Linder, who created the theory of intersecting demand, suggests that the similarity of tastes and preferences enhances foreign trade, since countries export goods for which there is a capacious domestic market. The limitation of this theory is due to the fact that it manifests itself with a uniform distribution of income between individual groups of countries.

The second group of studies, formed on the basis of the neotechnological approach, analyzes situations that are not covered by the presented theories, rejects the position on the decisive importance of differences in factors or technologies, and requires new alternative models and concepts.

Within the framework of this direction, the advantages of a country or a company are determined not by the focus on factors and not by the intensity of the spent factors, but by the monopoly position of the innovator in terms of technology. A number of new models have been created here, developing and enriching the theory of international trade from the side of both demand and supply.

1. Theory of economies of scale substantiated in the works of P. Krugman: the effect of scale makes it possible to explain trade between countries equally endowed with factors of production, similar goods, under the condition of imperfect competition. At the same time, the external effect of scale implies an increase in the number of firms producing the same product, while the size of each of them remains unchanged, which leads to perfect competition. Internal economies of scale contribute to imperfect competition, where producers can influence the price of their products and increase sales by lowering the price. In addition, a special place is given to the analysis of large firms - transnational companies (TNCs), due to the fact that a company that produces products on the most cost-effective scale occupies a dominant position in the world market, and world trade gravitates towards giant international monopolies.

The neotechnological school connects the main advantages with the monopoly positions of the firm (country) - innovator and proposes a new strategy: to produce not what is relatively cheaper, but what everyone or many people need and what no one else can produce yet. At the same time, many economists - supporters of this direction, in contrast to the supporters of the comparative advantage model, believe that the state can and should support the production of high-tech export goods and not interfere with the curtailment of the production of other obsolete ones.

2. Intra-industry trade model based on the postulates of the theory of economies of scale. Intra-industry exchange provides additional benefits from foreign trade relations due to market expansion. In this case, a country can simultaneously reduce the number of goods it produces, but increase the number consumed. By producing a smaller set of goods, a country realizes economies of scale, increasing productivity and reducing costs. A significant contribution to the development of the theory was made by P. Krutman and B. Balassa.

Intra-industry exchange is associated with the theory of similarity, which explains the cross-trade of comparable goods belonging to the same industry. In this regard, the role of the acquired advantages associated with the development and implementation of new technologies is increasing. According to the theory of similarity of countries in this situation, a developed country has a greater opportunity to adapt its products to the markets of similar countries.

3. Supporters dynamic models both the Ricardian explanation of the international exchange of technological differences and the theses of J. Shum-Peter on the decisive role of innovations are used as initial theoretical justifications. They believe that countries differ not only in the availability of production resources, but also in the level of technical development.

One of the first among the dynamic models is the theory of the technological gap by M. Posner, who believed that as a result of the emergence of technological innovations, a “technological gap” is formed between countries that have them and do not have them.

4. Life cycle theory R. Vernon explains the specialization of countries in the production and export of the same product at different stages of maturity. In the Asia-Pacific region, where there is a continuous process of successive passage of certain phases of economic development, the concept of “flying geese” by K. Akamatsu took shape and was confirmed by practice, according to which a hierarchy of international exchanges is formed corresponding to different levels of development of groups of countries.

It examines the links between two groups of characteristics;

• evolution of imports - domestic production - exports;
• the transition from consumer goods to capital-intensive from simple industrial products to more complex ones.

At the present stage, special attention is paid to the problem of combining the interests of the national economy and large firms - participants in international trade. This direction solves the problems of competitiveness at the level of the state and firm. So, M. Porter calls the main criteria for competitiveness factor conditions, demand conditions, the state of service industries, the company's strategy in a certain competitive situation. At the same time, M. Porter notes that the theory of comparative advantage is applicable only to basic factors such as undeveloped physical resources and unskilled labor. In the presence of developed factors (modern infrastructure, digital exchange of information, highly educated personnel, research of individual universities), this theory cannot fully explain the specifics of foreign trade practice.

M. Porter also puts forward a rather radical position, according to which, in the era of transnationalization, one should not talk about trade between countries at all, since it is not countries that trade, but firms. Apparently, in relation to our time, when different countries apply protectionist mechanisms to one degree or another, when brands like “made in USA”, “Italian furniture”, “white assembly”, etc. still retain their attractiveness, such a situation is still premature, although it clearly reflects a real trend.

5. Complements the neo-technological analysis of the factors of the international division of labor concept of I. B. Kreyvis, which uses the concepts of price elasticity of demand and supply, which measure the sensitivity of demand to price changes. According to Cravis, each country imports goods that it is either unable to produce itself or can produce in limited quantities and whose supply is elastic, while at the same time exporting goods with a highly elastic production that exceeds local needs. As a result, a country's foreign trade is determined by the comparative level of elasticity of the national and external supply of goods, as well as by higher rates of technological progress in export industries.

In conclusion, we note that at the present stage of the theory of international trade, they pay equal attention to both supply and demand, they seek to explain the practical issues that arise in the course of foreign trade between countries, modifying the international trade system, and are formed on the basis of the criterion for clarifying factors and their quantity, as well as the monopoly position of the innovator in terms of technology.

The deepening of globalization processes in world economic relations confirms the viability of all theories, and practice - the need for their constant modification.

Based on the benefits it brings to participating countries. The theory of international trade gives an idea of ​​what is the basis of this gain from foreign trade, or what determines the direction of foreign trade flows. International trade serves as a tool through which countries, by developing their specialization, can increase the productivity of available resources and thus increase the volume of goods and services they produce, improve the welfare of the population.

Many well-known economists dealt with international trade issues. The main theories of international trade - Mercantilist theory, A. Smith's Theory of absolute advantages, D. Ricardo's and D. S. Mill's Theory of comparative advantages, Heckscher-Ohlin theory, Leontief's paradox, Product life cycle theory, M. Porter's theory, Rybchinsky's theorem, and also The Theory of Samuelson and Stolper.

Mercantilist theory.

Mercantilism is a system of views of economists of the XV-XVII centuries, focused on the active intervention of the state in economic activity. Representatives of the direction: Thomas Maine, Antoine de Montchretien, William Stafford. The term was proposed by Adam Smith, who criticized the writings of the mercantilists. The mercantilist theory of international trade arose during the period of primitive accumulation of capital and the great geographical discoveries, based on the idea that the presence of gold reserves is the basis of the prosperity of the nation. Foreign trade, the mercantilists believed, should be focused on obtaining gold, since in the case of a simple commodity exchange, ordinary goods, being used, cease to exist, and gold accumulates in the country and can be reused for international exchange.

Trading was considered as a zero-sum game, when the gain of one participant automatically means the loss of the other, and vice versa. To obtain the maximum benefit, it was proposed to increase state intervention and control over the state of foreign trade. The trade policy of the mercantilists, called protectionism, was to create barriers in international trade that protect domestic producers from foreign competition, stimulate exports and restrict imports by imposing customs duties on foreign goods and receiving gold and silver in return for their goods.

The main provisions of the Mercantilist theory of international trade:

The need to maintain an active trade balance of the state (excess of exports over imports);

Recognition of the benefits of attracting gold and other precious metals to the country in order to increase its well-being;

Money is a stimulus to trade, since an increase in the mass of money is considered to increase the volume of merchandise;

Welcome protectionism aimed at importing raw materials and semi-finished products and exporting finished products;

Restriction on the export of luxury goods, as it leads to the leakage of gold from the state.

Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage.

In his work An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, in a polemic with the mercantilists, Smith formulated the idea that countries are interested in the free development of international trade, since they can benefit from it regardless of whether they are exporters or importers. Each country should specialize in the production of the product where it has an absolute advantage - a benefit based on different amounts of production costs in individual countries - participants in foreign trade. The refusal to produce goods in which countries do not have absolute advantages, and the concentration of resources on the production of other goods lead to an increase in total production volumes, an increase in the exchange of products of their labor between countries.

Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage suggests that a country's real wealth consists of the goods and services available to its citizens. If any country can produce this or that product more and cheaper than other countries, then it has an absolute advantage. Some countries may produce goods more efficiently than others. The country's resources flow into profitable industries, as the country cannot compete in unprofitable industries. This leads to an increase in the productivity of the country, as well as the qualification of the workforce; long periods of production of homogeneous products provide incentives for the development of more efficient methods of work.

Natural advantages for a single country: climate; territory; resources. Acquired advantages for a single country: production technology, that is, the ability to manufacture a variety of products.

The theory of comparative advantage D. Ricardo and D.S. Mill.

In his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, Ricardo showed that the principle of absolute advantage is only a special case of the general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative (relative) advantage. When analyzing the directions of development of foreign trade, two circumstances should be taken into account: firstly, economic resources - natural, labor, etc. - are unevenly distributed among countries, and secondly, the efficient production of various goods requires different technologies or combinations of resources.

The advantages that countries have are not given once and for all, D. Ricardo believed, therefore, even countries with absolutely higher levels of production costs can benefit from trade exchange. It is in the interests of each country to specialize in production in which it has the greatest advantage and the least weakness, and for which not absolute, but relative benefit is the greatest - such is the law of comparative advantage of D. Ricardo.

According to Ricardo, total output will be greatest when each good is produced by the country that has the lowest opportunity (opportunity) costs. Thus, relative advantage is a benefit based on lower opportunity (opportunity) costs in the exporting country. Hence, as a result of specialization and trade, both countries participating in the exchange will benefit. An example in this case is the exchange of English cloth for Portuguese wine, which benefits both countries, even if the absolute costs of production of both cloth and wine in Portugal are lower than in England.

Subsequently, D.S. Mill, in his Foundations of Political Economy, explained the price at which exchange takes place. According to Mill, the price of exchange is set by the laws of supply and demand at such a level that the aggregate of each country's exports pays for the aggregate of its imports - such is the law of international value.

The Heckscher-Ohlin Theory.

This theory of scientists from Sweden, which appeared in the 30s of the twentieth century, refers to the neoclassical concepts of international trade, since these economists did not adhere to the labor theory of value, considering capital and land to be productive along with labor. Therefore, the reason for their trade is the different availability of factors of production in the countries participating in international trade.

The main provisions of their theory boiled down to the following: firstly, countries tend to export those goods for the manufacture of which the factors of production available in the country are used in excess, and, conversely, to import goods, the production of which requires relatively rare factors; secondly, in international trade there is a tendency to equalize "factorial prices"; thirdly, the export of goods can be replaced by the movement of factors of production across national borders.

The neoclassical concept of Heckscher - Ohlin turned out to be convenient for explaining the reasons for the development of trade between developed and developing countries, when machinery and equipment were imported into developing countries in exchange for raw materials coming to developed countries. However, not all phenomena of international trade fit into the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, since today the center of gravity of international trade is gradually shifting to mutual trade in "similar" goods between "similar" countries.

Leontief's paradox.

These are the studies of an American economist who questioned the provisions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and showed that in the post-war period the US economy specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor rather than capital. The essence of Leontief's paradox was that the share of capital-intensive goods in exports could grow, while the share of labor-intensive goods could decrease. In fact, when analyzing the US trade balance, the share of labor-intensive goods did not decrease.

The resolution of Leontief's paradox was that the labor intensity of goods imported by the United States is quite high, but the price of labor in the cost of goods is much lower than in US exports. The capital intensity of labor in the United States is significant, together with high labor productivity, this leads to a significant impact on the price of labor in export deliveries. The share of labor-intensive supplies in US exports is growing, confirming Leontief's paradox. This is due to the growth in the share of services, labor costs and the structure of the US economy. This leads to an increase in the labor intensity of the entire American economy, not excluding exports.

Product Life Cycle Theory.

It was put forward and substantiated by R. Vernoy, C. Kindelberger and L. Wels. In their opinion, the product from the moment it enters the market until it leaves it goes through a cycle consisting of five stages:

Product development. The company finds and implements a new product idea. During this time, sales are zero and costs rise.

Bringing goods to market. There is no profit due to the high costs of marketing activities, sales volume is growing slowly;

Quickly conquer the market, increase profits;

Maturity. Sales growth is slowing down, as the bulk of consumers have already been attracted. The level of profit remains unchanged or decreases due to an increase in the cost of marketing activities to protect the product from competition;

decline. Decline in sales and shrinking profits.

Theory of M. Porter.

This theory introduces the concept of a country's competitiveness. It is national competitiveness, according to Porter, that determines the success or failure in specific industries and the place that the country occupies in the world economy. National competitiveness is determined by the ability of the industry. At the heart of explaining a country's competitive advantage is the home country's role in stimulating renewal and improvement (that is, in stimulating the production of innovations).

Government measures to maintain competitiveness:

Government impact on factor conditions;

Government influence on demand conditions;

Government impact on related and supporting industries;

The impact of government on the strategy, structure and rivalry of firms.

A serious incentive to success in the global market is sufficient competition in the domestic market. The artificial dominance of enterprises through government support, from Porter's point of view, is a negative decision, leading to waste and inefficient use of resources. The theoretical premises of M. Porter served as the basis for the development of recommendations at the state level to increase the competitiveness of foreign trade goods in Australia, New Zealand and the United States in the 90s of the twentieth century.

Rybchinsky's theorem. The theorem consists in the assertion that if the value of one of the two factors of production increases, then in order to maintain a constant price for goods and factors, it is necessary to increase the production of those products that intensively use this increased factor, and reduce the production of the rest of the products that intensively use the fixed factor. In order for the prices of goods to remain constant, the prices of factors of production must remain unchanged.

The prices of factors of production can only remain constant if the ratio of the factors used in the two industries remains constant. In the case of an increase in one factor, this can only happen if there is an increase in production in the industry in which this factor is intensively used, and a decrease in production in another industry, which will lead to the release of a fixed factor, which will become available for use along with a growing factor in an expanding industry. .

Theory of Samuelson and Stolper.

In the middle of the XX century. (1948), the American economists P. Samuelson and W. Stolper improved the Heckscher-Ohlin theory by imagining that in the case of homogeneity of factors of production, identity of technology, perfect competition and complete mobility of goods, international exchange equalizes the price of factors of production between countries. The authors base their concept on the Ricardian model with the additions of Heckscher and Ohlin and consider trade not just as a mutually beneficial exchange, but also as a means to reduce the gap in the level of development between countries.

2.2.1. Mercantilism. The mercantilist theory of international trade appeared in the era of the development of world trade in the 16th-18th centuries. and expressed the interests of the merchants. The main provisions of the theory can be formulated as follows:

1) money (gold and silver) - the absolute form of wealth;

2) the subject of research is the sphere of circulation;

3) the accumulation of wealth in the form of money occurs at the expense of profits from foreign trade or the extraction of precious metals;

4) government intervention in the economy is necessary through the regulation of foreign trade.

Mercantilism went through two stages in its development. The early mercantilists, advocates of a balance of money, opposed the removal of gold and silver from the country. Later mercantilists, supporters of the trade balance system, allowed the export of precious metals if, on the whole, a positive balance was achieved in trade. They advocated the industrial processing of raw materials and the use of the benefits of transit trade. The views of the later mercantilists already reflect the interests of not only merchant but also industrial capital.

The main drawback of the mercantilist theory is that, in their view, the economic benefit of some participants in a trade transaction - exporting countries - turns into economic damage for others - importing countries. The main advantage is the export support policy they developed, combined with the active protectionist policy of the state.

2.2.2. Classical theories of international trade. The basic classical theory of international trade is A. Smith's theory of absolute advantages. It proceeds from prerequisites opposite to mercantilism. A. Smith considers the economy of free competition, where the "invisible hand" of the market coordinates the actions of many producers so that each of the economic agents, striving for their own benefit, ensures the well-being of society as a whole. Substantiating the policy of state non-intervention in the economy and free competition (the “laisser-faire” policy), A. Smith advocated free trade. Formulate basic premises Smith models can be done as follows:

Perfect competition in all markets

two countries are considered, which differ only in production technology;

· two goods are produced in both countries, the barter economy is analyzed, there is no money;

· there is one factor of production - labor, it is homogeneous and can move freely between industries, but cannot move between countries;

The economy of full employment is analyzed;

transport costs are zero;

· Foreign trade is free.

A country has an absolute advantage if it can produce a good at a lower cost than another country (or at a higher output). Formally, this is reflected as follows: the first country has an absolute advantage in the production of the first good, if

where the time it takes to produce a unit of a good j in the country i;

where is the quantity of goods produced j per unit of time in the country i(labor productivity in the country i).

Based on the above, Smith's theorem is formulated as follows: those goods should be sent for export, the costs of production of which are less than in other countries, and, accordingly, goods should be imported, the costs of production of which abroad are absolutely lower than in the homeland.

Thus, according to A. Smith's theory, the development of national production based on absolute advantage in free trade allows each country to simultaneously benefit from international trade by selling goods at world prices.

The shortcoming of the theory is that it leaves open the answers to a number of questions that arise in the course of foreign trade relations: what happens if a country does not have an absolute advantage in the production of any product? Can such a country be a full partner in foreign trade? Will other countries agree to trade with it? Isn't such a country doomed to the need to buy all the goods it needs on the world market? In this case, how will she be able to pay for goods purchased abroad? These questions can be answered in theory of relative (comparative) advantages D. Ricardo. The premises of this theory are similar to those of Smith's theorem. D. Ricardo introduces the concept of relative (comparative) advantages.

When determining absolute advantages, costs per unit of production for the same product in different countries are compared. When determining relative advantages, goods are first compared with each other, and then the relative costs of one product in different countries. If a

then the first country has a relative advantage in the production of the first good. In the modern interpretation (G. Haeberler), this means that in the first country the opportunity costs of producing the first good are lower than in the second.

Ricardo's theorem sounds like this: if countries specialize in the production of those goods that they can produce at a relatively lower cost compared to other countries, then trade will be mutually beneficial for both countries. Both countries with high productivity and countries with low productivity benefit from trade.

It should be noted that in Ricardo models opportunity cost is fixed. Constant costs lead to the conclusion that the country will gain the most if it specializes entirely in the product in the production of which it has a comparative advantage. At constant costs, one of the two trading countries will not be able to fully specialize in exports only if the world price matches the price ratio within the country in the absence of trade. In this case, the country in which the price ratio is changing is a large country, and the second is a small one. Large countries continue to produce both goods under free trade because small countries cannot export enough goods to meet the large country's demand for that good.

The disadvantages of the model include the following:

1) the immutability of opportunity costs in the model;

2) the law of comparative advantage allows for the complete specialization of countries in the production of certain goods, which does not actually happen in practice;

3) D. Ricardo's model does not take into account the difference in the endowment of individual countries with production resources;

4) the theory of comparative advantage abstracts from the impact of international trade on the distribution of income within the country, which actually takes place;

5) on the basis of the Ricardian model, it is impossible to explain the exchange of large flows of similar goods between approximately the same countries that do not have relative advantages in relation to each other;

6) following the recipes of the theory of comparative advantage means for developing countries the preservation of permanent poverty and backwardness.

2.2.3. Neoclassical theories of international trade.Factor ratio theory of production (Heckscher-Ohlin) explains why comparative advantage arises. The Heckscher-Ohlin theory argues that the unequal relative endowment of countries with productive resources gives rise to a difference in the relative prices of goods, which, in turn, creates the prerequisites for the emergence and development of international trade. This theory can be represented as two interrelated theorems: first, the so-called Heckscher-Ohlin theorems , which explains the structure of international trade and, secondly, factor price equalization theorems, or Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson theorems , which addresses the effect of international trade on factor prices.

The assumptions of the model include the following:

1) perfect competition in all markets;

2) consideration of two countries and two goods, a barter economy;

3) analysis of two factors of production - labor and capital, and they can move freely between industries, but not between countries;

4) the limited total amount of labor and capital in each country;

5) the only difference between countries is different stocks of production factors with the same technologies;

6) absence of transport costs.

The concepts of factor intensity and factor saturation are introduced. Factor intensity- This is an indicator that characterizes the different relative costs of labor and capital in the creation of individual goods. From these positions, manufactured goods are divided into labor intensive and capital intensive. Factor saturation (factor redundancy) compares factor stocks across countries. A country can be capital-saturated (capital-surplus) or labor-saturated (labor-surplus).

Based on the foregoing Heckscher-Ohlin theorem can be formulated as follows: countries tend to export those factor-intensive goods in the production of which they use relatively surplus production resources, and to import those goods, the production of which requires resources that are relatively scarce for them.

International differences in the shape of production possibilities curves arise mainly because the production of different goods requires factors of production in different proportions; and countries differ in terms of availability of factors of production. Therefore, a country does not have to be completely specialized in the production of one type of product.

Samuelson's complement is as follows: an equalization of prices for factors of production is inevitable. But Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson theorem works only in case of identical technologies in all countries. As applied to the real world, it can be reformulated as follows: free trade should cause a tendency towards convergence of prices for factors of production if trade between countries is based on differences in the endowment of factors of production.

Verification of the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem was carried out by V. Leontiev on the basis of statistical data for the United States for 1947. In the postwar period, the United States was one of the richest countries in the world, abundantly provided with capital. Using the input-output method, V. Leontiev calculated the costs of labor and capital for a representative package of US exports worth $1 million. For imports, he used data on import substitutes because he did not have data on actual US imports. Substitutes for imports are goods that are produced both in their own country and imported from abroad. The results were as follows: US imports were about 30% more capital intensive than exports. Consequently, the US exported predominantly labor-intensive products and imported capital-intensive goods. The result was called Leontief's paradox. However, he does not refute the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, but only refines it. The paradox itself can be explained as follows:

1) in the analysis, it is necessary to split the factors of production into subgroups, because they are heterogeneous (for example, the labor force is skilled and unskilled);

2) to the greatest extent, the United States was provided with agricultural land and qualified personnel, therefore, the share of agricultural products and high-tech goods in US exports is large, and imports are represented by labor-intensive goods that require the use of cheap low-skilled labor (textiles, shoes) for their manufacture, as well as raw materials and minerals coming from countries rich in natural resources;

3) it is necessary to take into account the influence of the foreign trade policy of the state, which can stimulate the export of products of those industries where relatively scarce production factors are intensively used;

4) the existence of the reversibility of factors of production should be taken into account: a product in a capital-abundant country can be capital-intensive; in labor surplus - labor intensive.

In general, the shortcomings of the neoclassical theory include the fact that it does not explain why countries continue to trade, approximately equally provided with factors of production. There is no answer to the question why countertrade in similar manufactured goods occupies an increasing share in the structure of international trade.

2.2.4. Development of classical theories of international trade. The development of classical theories took place in two main directions: the first included their extension to many countries and goods, and the second focused on finding answers to questions that were not considered in the basic theories of international trade. The latter direction includes the theory of specific factors of production (P. Samuelson and R. Jones), the Samuelson-Stolper theorem (the effect of changes in commodity prices on income from production factors), the Rybchinsky theorem (the effect of the supply of production factors on income from production, “Dutch disease ”), the Jones enhancement effect. Let's dwell on them in more detail.

The theory of specific factors of production(P. Samuelson and R. Jones) answers the question: how will trade develop if some of the factors of production are not mobile and cannot move between industries, i.e. are specific to only one industry. Two countries, two goods and three factors of production (labour, capital and land) are considered. Specific resources are land and capital, labor is mobile. Based on this, Samuelson-Johnson theorem sounds like this: as a result of international trade, factors specific to the export sector develop, while factors specific to the sector that competes with imports decrease; the income of the owner of factors specific to exporting industries rises, while the income of the owners of factors specific to industries competing with imports decreases.

In the long run, factors can move between sectors in response to changes in income. In this case, the division between winners and losers may look somewhat different.

Samuelson-Stolper theorem answers the question: how will the prices of factors of production behave when the prices of the goods for the production of which they are used rise or fall.

The assumptions of the model are formulated as follows:

1) two goods are produced, one of which is labor-intensive, the other is capital-intensive;

2) factors of production can move between sectors, full employment is observed in the country, the general provision with factors of production is unchanged;

H) both economies operate in conditions of free competition:

4) production technology implies constant economies of scale.

Samuelson-Stolper theorem sounds like this: international trade leads to an increase in the income of the owners of factors intensively used to produce a good whose price is rising, and a decrease in the prices of factors intensively used to produce a good whose price is falling. In this case, the increase or decrease in the price of factors occurs to a greater extent than the increase or decrease in the price of the goods.

An important result of the theorem is that the movement towards free trade causes real incomes to rise for a relatively abundant factor, and fall for a relatively rare one. Moreover, the owners of the excess factor win regardless of the industry in which this factor is used. This is because when free trade develops, the price of exported goods rises and that of imported goods falls. Rising prices in export industries stimulate the expansion of production; in industries competing with imports, production is declining. For example, the export industry is capital intensive. Excessive demand for capital raises its price; oversupply of labor leads to a fall in its price. However, capital owners experience an increase in the price of capital in both industries.

Rybchinsky's theorem answers the question: what will happen to the income of the owners of the factors if the supply of one of the resources changes. It is formulated as follows: an increasing supply of one of the factors leads to a greater percentage increase in production and income growth in the industry where this factor is used more intensively, and to a reduction in production in other industries.

One of the concrete manifestations of Rybchinsky's theorem is the so-called " dutch disease". When in the 70s. 20th century The Netherlands began to develop a natural gas field in the North Sea, the rapid increase in gas production was accompanied by an overflow of resources into the extractive industry from manufacturing industries, which led to a reduction in their output.

In the USSR in the 60-70s. 20th century a similar situation was observed: the discovery of large oil and gas fields in Western Siberia, an increase in the production of energy resources "put an end" to the reconstruction of domestic civil engineering, agriculture and other "narrow" industries.

2.2.5. Alternative theories of foreign trade. Alternative theories completely refute the classical ones and offer their own explanations for the causes of international trade and the possibilities of success in the world market. In this section, we consider only the most famous of modern theories.

0. Imitation lag hypothesis(M. Posner, 1961) is a kind of prerequisite for Vernon's theory, which will be considered next. There is a delay (lag) in the spread of technology between countries. The simulation lag includes a period of training, familiarization (time to obtain technology, start of production) and time to purchase materials, equipment, bring the product to the buyer, etc.

In addition, there is a lag on the demand side, which includes the time it takes to realize that there is a substitute for the currently consumed product (commitment to the product, lack of information, inertia, etc.).

For example, if the simulation lag is 15 months and the demand side lag is 4 months, then the net lag is 11 months, during which the country of innovation will export the product.

Thus, to succeed in the world market, it is necessary to focus on trading in new products; to be a successful exporter, it is necessary to constantly invent a new product.

1. Product life cycle theory(R. Vernon, 1960s). The life cycle of a product goes through the following stages: introduction, growth, maturity, decline.

Implementation characterized by small-scale production, the manufacturer occupies an almost monopoly position, a small part of the output goes to the foreign market.

Growth characteristic: greater standardization, increased competition, increased exports.

On the stage maturity- large-scale production, the predominance of price factors in competition, the country of innovation no longer has competitive advantages, production begins to move to developing countries with cheap labor.

decline is a drop in demand, especially in developed countries, the concentration of production and sales markets in developing countries, and the country of innovation becomes a net importer.

The theory is not universal, although its confirmation can be found in the development of the life cycle of some products. For example, the TV was invented in the USA, then mass-produced in Japan and Europe, and now its production has moved to Asian countries. The conclusion of the theory is that in order to succeed in the world market, a country must constantly introduce new products.

2. Theory of economies of scale(P. Krugman, K. Lancaster, 1980s).

The essence of the economy of scale effect is that with a certain technology and organization of production, long-term average costs decrease as the volume of output increases.

Many countries are provided with factors of production in the same proportions, in these conditions it is profitable for them to trade among themselves with specialization in those industries that are characterized by the effect of the presence of mass production. Thus, international trade allows the formation of a single integrated market.

The shortcomings of the theory are that, firstly, perfect competition is violated; secondly, international trade is concentrated in the hands of giant international firms - TNCs, which leads to an increase in intra-company trade, which is determined by the strategic goals of the firm itself, and not of the trading countries.

3. Theory of Competitive Advantage(M. Porter, 1991).

In modern conditions, a significant part of the world's commodity flows is associated not with natural, but with acquired advantages, purposefully formed in the course of competition. Firms compete in the world market, not countries. For success, it is necessary to combine the correctly chosen competitive strategy of the company with the competitive advantages of the country. The international competitive advantages of national firms operating in industries depend on the macro environment of their country, which is determined by four determinants of competitive advantage. These include:

1) factor conditions - provision with production factors (moreover, with specialized ones - scientific and technical knowledge, highly skilled labor force, etc.);

2) parameters of domestic demand for the products of a given country - the "quality" and volume of domestic demand, the exactingness of consumers;

3) the presence of competitive supplier industries and related industries that produce complementary products;

4) internal rivalry - the nature of competition in the domestic market, national features of the strategy.

In addition, to the main four determinants, M. Porter adds the presence of a case and a purposeful policy of the state.

Countries are most likely to succeed in those industries where the “diamond” of the determinant of competitive advantage is most favorable.

Due to the fact that different countries are characterized by a different combination of determinants of competitive advantages, M. Porter identifies the following stages of a country's life cycle:

1) the stage of factors of production (countries compete primarily through the use of competitive advantages associated with factors of production, cheaper labor, more fertile land);

2) the investment stage (the competitiveness of the economy is based on the investment activity of the state and national firms, while the ability of national producers to adapt and improve foreign technologies is decisive for reaching this stage, the growth in investment leads to the creation of new advanced factors and the development of modern infrastructure);

3) the innovation stage (characterized by the presence of all four factors in a wide range of industries that are in constant interaction, the diversity of consumer demand increases due to the growth of personal incomes, an increase in the level of education and the desire for comfort, as well as due to stimulating internal competition);

4) the stage of wealth (a decline in production, the driving force behind the economy is already achieved abundance, the country and companies begin to lose ground in international competition, much attention is paid to maintaining public positions, companies prefer not active investment, but conservative strategies based on support from the authorities ).

For each stage, M. Porter offers typical priorities for the state's economic policy.

· Factor stage: creating and maintaining overall political and macroeconomic stability and achieving the rule of law, achieving a high level of physical infrastructure and general education, opening markets, creating conditions for the assimilation (borrowing) of world-class technologies and attracting foreign direct investment.

· Investment stage: investing in improving physical infrastructure and R&D capacity, promoting cluster development, building capacity to outpace foreign technology, and expanding capacity along the value chain, i.e. from mining to manufacturing industries.

· Innovation stage: further strengthening cluster development, creating world-class research resources, enabling national firms to develop unique strategies and the world's best innovations.

4. Crossing demand theory(S. Linder, 1960s).

Consumers in countries with roughly the same income have roughly similar tastes. The goods will be exported to those countries where the demand structure is similar, or at least comparable to the domestic demand of the exporting country. The theory is limited, because in most countries, the income gap between different segments of the population is very large.

The general conclusion of the theory is that countries with approximately the same per capita income will trade more intensively among themselves. Moreover, when talking about trade, it is not specified whether it is export or import. S. Linder argues that both exports and imports (ie intra-industry trade) will be intensive.

5. Theory of intra-industry trade.

Intra-industry trade occurs when a country exports and imports products of the same commodity group. Traditional theories consider only interindustry trade.

The reasons for intra-industry trade include the following:

1) differences in manufactured products (different goods within the same group, for example, cars);

2) transport costs and geographical location (it is more profitable to buy abroad in border areas than in other regions of the country, because it is cheaper);

3) the dynamics of economies of scale in production (decrease in production costs of a certain product, which leads to an increase in its output, and a kind of specialization arises);

4) the degree of aggregation in statistical data processing (the more the product category includes, the more significant intra-industry trade is);

5) differentiation in the distribution of income within the country.

The higher the level of income in the country, the greater the intra-industry trade. The more developed the country, the greater the differentiation of products, and the greater the possibility of realizing economies of scale. In addition, the following indicators have a positive relationship with the degree of intra-industry trade: the level of per capita income, GDP, the degree of openness of the economy, and the presence of common borders between countries.