See pages where the term classification system is mentioned. By release form

Statistical observation- it is massive (it covers a large number of cases of manifestation of the phenomenon under study to obtain true statistical data), systematic (carried out according to a developed plan, including questions of methodology, organization of collection and control of information reliability), systematic (carried out systematically, either continuously or regularly), scientifically organized (to increase the reliability of the data, which depends on the observation program, the content of the questionnaires, the quality of the preparation of instructions) observation of the phenomena and processes of socio-economic life, which consists in the collection and registration of individual characteristics from each unit of the population.

Stages of statistical observation

1. Preparing for statistical observation(solution of scientific, methodological and organizational and technical issues).

• determination of the purpose and object of observation;
• determination of the composition of the features subject to registration;
• development of documents for data collection;
• selection and training of personnel for observation;

2. Collection of information

• direct filling of statistical forms (forms, questionnaires);

Statistical information is primary data on the state of socio-economic phenomena that are formed in the process statistical observation, which are then systematized, summarized, analyzed and generalized.

The composition of information is largely determined by the needs of society at the moment. Changes in the forms of ownership and methods of economic regulation led to changes in the policy of statistical observation. If earlier information was available only to state bodies, now it is in most cases publicly available. The main consumers of statistical information are the government, commercial structures, international organizations and the public.

It consists in obtaining data that, for one reason or another, were not included in the reporting or for checking the reporting data. It is the collection of data through censuses and one-time counts.

Based on the maintenance of a statistical register, with the help of which continuous statistical accounting is carried out for long-term processes that have a fixed beginning, a stage of development and a fixed ending.

Types of statistical observation

Statistical observations are subdivided into types according to the following characteristics:

• by the time of data logging;
• by completeness of coverage;

Types of statistical observation by registration time:

Ongoing (continuous) surveillance- is carried out to study current phenomena and processes. The registration of facts is carried out as they occur. (registration of family marriages and divorces)

Discontinuous observation- carried out as necessary, while temporary gaps in data registration are allowed:

According to the completeness of coverage of population units, the following types of statistical observation are distinguished:

Continuous observation- is the collection and receipt of information about all units of the studied population. It is characterized by high material and labor costs, insufficient information efficiency. It is used in the population census, when collecting data in the form of reporting, covering large and medium-sized enterprises of various forms of ownership.

Discontinuous observation- based on the principle of random selection of units of the studied population, while all types of units available in the population should be represented in the sample. Has a number of advantages over continuous surveillance: reduction in time and money.

• Selective observation- based on a random selection of units to be observed.
• Monographic observation- consists in examining individual units of the population, characterized by rare qualitative properties. An example of monographic observation: characteristics of the work of individual enterprises, to identify shortcomings in work or development trends.
• Main array method- consists in the study of the most significant, largest units of the population, which, according to the main criterion, have the largest specific weight in the studied population.
• Momentary observation method- consists in conducting observations at random or constant time intervals with marks about the state of the object under study at a particular moment in time.

Statistical observation methods

Methods for obtaining statistical information:

Direct statistical observation- observation, in which the registrars themselves, by direct measurement, weighing, counting, establish the fact subject to registration.

Documentary observation- based on the use of various types of accounting documents.
Includes reporting method of observation - in which enterprises submit statistical reports on their activities on a strictly mandatory basis.

Survey- is to obtain the necessary information directly from the respondent.

Expeditionary- registrars receive the necessary information from the interviewed persons and record it in the forms themselves.

Self-registration method- the forms are filled in by the respondents themselves, the registrars only distribute the forms and explain the rules for filling them out.

Correspondent- information is reported to the relevant authorities by the staff of volunteer correspondents.

Questionnaire- collection of information is carried out in the form of questionnaires, which are special questionnaires, it is convenient in cases when high accuracy of results is not required.

Voiced- consists in providing information to the relevant authorities in person.

Statistical observation errors

The information obtained in the course of statistical observation may not correspond to reality, and the calculated values ​​of the indicators may not correspond to the actual values.

The discrepancy between the calculated value and the actual value is called observation error.

Depending on the causes of occurrence, there are registration errors and errors of representativeness... Registration errors are typical for both continuous and non-continuous observation, and representativeness errors are characteristic only for non-continuous observation. Registration errors, like errors of representativeness, can be random and systematic.

Registration errors- represent the deviations between the value of the indicator obtained in the course of statistical observation and its actual value. Registration errors can be random (the result of the actions of random factors - for example, lines are confused) and systematic (they appear constantly).

Representative errors- arise when the selected population does not accurately reproduce the original population. They are characteristic for non-continuous observation and consist in the deviation of the value of the indicator of the studied part of the population from its value in the general population.

Random errors- are the result of random factors.

Systematic errors- always have the same tendency to increase or decrease the indicator for each observation unit, as a result of which the value of the indicator for the population as a whole will include the accumulated error.

• Counting (arithmetic) - checking the correctness of the arithmetic calculation.
• Logical - based on the semantic relationship between features.

Securities can be classified according to the following criteria:

§ lifetime: urgent (short-term, medium-term, long-term and revocable) and indefinite;

§ form of existence: paper (documentary) or paperless (non-documentary);

§ the order of fixing the owner: registered or bearer;

§ the form appeal (transfer procedure): transferred by agreement of the parties (by delivery, by assignment) or order (transferred by order of the owner - endorsement);

§ release form: emission or non-emission;

§ registration: registered (state registration or registration of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation) and unregistered;

§ nationality: Russian or foreign;

§ type of issuer: state (federal or municipal) and non-state (corporate or private);

§ addressability: market or non-market;

§ purpose of use: investment (the goal is to generate income) or non-investment (serve the turnover in the commodity markets);

§ risk level: risk-free or risky (low-risk, medium-risk or high-risk);

§ availability of accrued income: non-profitable or profitable (interest, dividend, discount);

§ face value: constant or variable.

In accordance with Russian law, securities include:

 State and municipal securities

 Bond

 Bill of exchange

 Certificates of Deposit and Savings Certificates

Bearer bank passbook

 Bill of Lading

 Privatization securities

 Warehouse certificate

 Investment share

 Mortgage

 Other documents that are classified as securities by the laws on securities or in accordance with the procedure established by them.

· According to the order of ownership and transfer of rights, there are registered, bearer and order securities.

A registered security is a security, the name of the owner of which is recorded on its letterhead and in the register of owners.

Bearer security is a security, the name of the owner of which is not fixed on it, and its circulation does not need to be registered. The transfer of rights on it is carried out by simple delivery.

An order security, for example a certificate of deposit, a bill of exchange, is issued in the name of the first purchaser and may be accompanied by a transfer inscription on the security, with which the rights of claim on the security can be transferred to the person indicated in the inscription.

· By maturity, securities are subdivided into fixed-term, indefinite and term-at-sight. Term securities have a period of existence established when they are issued: short-term - up to a year; medium-term - from 1 to 5 years, long-term - over 5 years. Perpetual securities are stocks.

· According to their legal status, securities are subdivided into emission and non-emission. Equity securities (shares, bonds) placed by an issue and having the same volume and terms of exercising rights within one issue, regardless of the time of purchase of the security. The issue requires state registration and publication of the issue prospectus - a document containing basic information on the securities issued and on the terms of issue, on the issuer and on the securities issued by him earlier. Non-equity securities (promissory notes, checks, certificates of deposit, etc.) are issued individually or in small series and their issue does not require registration.

· According to the form of issue, securities are subdivided into documentary ones, i.e. made on paper, and uncertified (paperless, non-cash), existing in the form of entries on personal accounts in the system of maintaining the register of owners or on a depo account in a depository serving the issuer. The development of market relations has led to the emergence of a paperless form of existence of securities. First of all, this is due to the increase in the number of traded securities, especially stocks and bonds. For other securities, the documentary form prevails. Many of the rights enshrined in a security can be exercised regardless of its form. For example, the payment of income does not require its presentation; the purchase and sale operation can be carried out without the presence of it itself as a material carrier of the property rights fixed to it. In the documentary form of issue, the owner is identified on the basis of a properly executed certificate of the security. A non-documentary security is always a registered and issued security, and in electronic memory it is registered to a specific legal entity or individual. A representative document certifying the possession of a certain number of securities is an extract from the register of owners issued by the registrar. A paperless (paperless) form of a security speeds up and simplifies its circulation in terms of settlements, transfers from one owner to another, removes the problems of storage, accounting and taxation. According to the economic essence, securities can be conditionally divided into three large classes: basic, derivatives and commodity-regulating ones.

41. Tax system of the Russian Federation

Tax system Russia includes the following elements:

A mutually agreed set of taxes, fees and charges used in a particular country for financing state budget and extrabudgetary funds;

A system of laws, decrees and by-laws governing the procedure for calculating and paying to the budget various taxes, fees and other tax payments.

Depending on the nature of the state structure, the tax system may include federal (central) taxes, taxes of administrative-territorial entities (or taxes of the subjects of the Federation) and local taxes and fees. As a rule, within the framework of the second and third categories of taxes, there are mandatory taxes and taxes that can be imposed by the decision of regional and local authorities.

Taxes of administrative-territorial entities and local taxes and fees are credited to the respective budgets, and federal taxes can be allocated to those that are distributed between the budgets of various levels to balance the budget system and subsidize local budgets (a group of regulatory taxes).

Tax system Russian Federation consists of three groups of taxes: federal taxes; regional taxes (taxes of the republics within the Russian Federation, taxes of territories, regions, autonomous regions, autonomous okrugs) and local taxes and fees.

TO federal taxes The Russian Federation currently includes: value added tax (VAT), excise taxes on certain types and groups of goods, tax on transactions with securities, customs duties, deductions for the reproduction of the mineral resource base, payments for use natural resources, corporate income tax (profit tax), personal income tax, taxes that serve as sources of formation of road funds, state duty, tax on property transferred by inheritance and donation, tax on the purchase of foreign currency.

TO republican taxes includes tax on property of enterprises, forest income, fees for water taken by industrial enterprises from water management systems, collection for needs educational institutions levied from legal entities.

TO local taxes and fees includes the tax on property of individuals, land tax, registration fee from individuals engaged in entrepreneurial activities without forming a legal entity, constituting a group of generally obligatory taxes, as well as a number of other taxes and fees (resort fee, license fee for the right to trade in wine and vodka products , tax on the maintenance of housing stock and social facilities and a number of other taxes, etc.).

42. Essence, role and functions of credit

Credit- the form of movement of loan capital, carried out on the basis of urgency, repayment and payment.

Credit ensures the transformation of money capital into loan capital and expresses the relationship between lenders and borrowers. With the help of credit, free money capital and income of enterprises, the personal sector and the state are accumulated, converted into loan capital, which is transferred for a fee for temporary use. Loan capital is redistributed between industries, taking into account market benchmarks in those areas that provide higher profits or which are preferred in accordance with the national programs for the development of the Russian economy. Credit has an active impact on the volume and structure of the money supply, payment turnover, the speed of money circulation; during the transition of the Russian Federation to the market, it creates the basis for accelerating development cashless payments and the introduction of their new methods, which contributes to the saving of distribution costs and increasing the efficiency of social reproduction as a whole. Thanks to the loan, there is a faster process of capitalization of profits, and, consequently, the concentration of production.

In a market economy, credit performs the following functions:

a) accumulation of temporarily free funds;

b) redistribution of funds on the terms of their subsequent return;

c) creation of credit instruments of circulation (banknotes and treasury notes) and credit operations;

d) regulation of the volume of the aggregate money turnover.

43. Principles of lending.

Lending principles - the principles on the basis of which it is customary to provide a loan to a borrower:

Loan repayment;

Loan urgency - compliance with the terms of repayment;

Loan security;

Borrower creditworthiness - differentiation of loans;

Loan payment;

Purpose of the loan.

The principles of lending are the fundamental conditions on which a loan is issued to a borrower. These principles of lending are:

Urgency;

Returnability;

Paid.

The principle of urgency means that the loan is issued for a clearly specified period. This term is stipulated in the loan agreement. There are several ways to indicate the maturity of the loan, namely:

The return of the entire amount of the principal and interest on it at a fixed rate in clearly established periods of time;

Repayment of the principal amount at clearly defined intervals, each of which has its own interest rate, that is, it is a loan with a floating interest rate (rollover);

Return in clearly defined periods of time only the amount of interest on the loan and return after the expiration of the loan agreement of the entire amount of the principal debt on the loan;

It is not the time of repayment of the loan and interest on it that is indicated, but only the conditions for their repayment. For example, the loan repayment at the first request of the lender (on-call loan), the procedure for repayment of the loan (overdraft, current loan). The urgency of the loan means its return.

The principle of loan repayment is that at the end of the loan agreement, the borrowed money must be returned to the lender in full (principal) and with interest. If the loan is not repaid on time, the borrower is charged penalties (i.e. penalties), the amount of which is set in the loan agreement. To guarantee the return of a financial loan, different types of security for this return are used.

The main types of loan security are surety, guarantee, pledge, insurance of the borrower's liability for non-repayment of the loan.

Any business entity (bank, association, enterprise, etc.) can act as a guarantor. A surety is an agreement with unilateral obligations, through which the guarantor undertakes an obligation to the lender to pay the borrower's debt, if necessary. The surety agreement serves as an addition to the loan agreement and is certified by a notary. A surety agreement applies when the borrower is a citizen. A guarantee is a type of surety applied only between legal entities... A guarantee means the obligation of the guarantor to pay a certain amount for the guaranteed one upon the occurrence of a guarantee event.

Unlike a surety, a guarantee is not an act complementing a loan agreement. It is drawn up with a letter of guarantee.

Securing a loan in the form of a surety or a guarantee provides for the right of the bank (lender) to unconditionally write off funds in the required amounts from the accounts of the guarantor or guarantor in the event that the borrower fails to pay off the obligation on the loan received in due time.

44. Forms and types of credit:

1. Bank loan

2. By maturity

Short-term (up to a year)

Medium term (1-3 years)

Long-term (more than 3 years)

Oncall loan

3. By methods of repayment

One-time

By installments

4. By methods of collecting loan%

·% Of repayment together with the body of the loan;

Uniform payments%

5. By lending method:

· One-time loans;

Providing on time and for the amount provided by the contract

Credit lines

6. By types of% rates:

· Loans with a fixed% rate;

· With a floating interest rate;

· Step rates.

7. By the number of credits:

· Syndicated;

Parallel loans

46. ​​Credit system of the Russian Federation

The credit system is a set of various financial and credit institutions operating in the loan capital market and carrying out the accumulation and concentration of money capital

The credit system of the Russian Federation consists of two levels

1. Financial and credit institutions (Central Bank of the Russian Federation, bank credit organizations, specialized non-bank credit institutions);

2. Instruments of credit relations:

· Credit agreement;

· Bill of exchange;

· Bond.

Credit mechanism:

· The system of connections for the accumulation and mobilization of monetary capital between credit institutions and various sectors of the economy;

· Relations associated with the redistribution of money capital between the credit institutions themselves within the existing capital market;

· Relationships between credit institutions and foreign clients.

47. Banking system of the Russian Federation

The banking system of the Russian Federation is a set of various financial and credit institutions operating interconnected within the general monetary mechanism of the country.

In Russia, the banking system has two levels:

2. Commercial bank.

Central Bank functions:

48. Types of banking operations:

· Passive - these are operations aimed at attracting money to the bank, accounts and deposits;

· Active - operations in which the bank is a creditor, placing the funds available to it.

Commission and intermediary:

· Settlement and cash operations;

· Factoring;

· Leasing;

· Trust operations.

49. Form of organization and functions of the Central Bank.

Central Bank functions:

· Monopoly emission of banknotes;

· Bank of banks (does not deal with legal entities) - sets the minimum ratio of the required reserves of commercial banks in the central bank, with the liabilities of banks on liabilities;

· The Central Bank supervises the activities of commercial banks either monopolistically or jointly with the Ministry of Finance or other government agency;

· Regulation of the entire monetary system of the country and ensuring the stability of the national currency.

Types of banking operations:

central bank from the point of view of ownership of capital, it happens:

· State (Great Britain, France, Canada, Russia);

· Joint-stock (FRS);

· Mixed (Japan).

50. Monetary policy and its instruments

Monetary Policy of the Central Bank- a set of measures aimed at changing the money supply in circulation, the volume of loans, the level of interest rates and other indicators of money circulation and credit.

The main methods of monetary policy of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation are formed in the 35th article of the federal law on the Bank of Russia.

Instruments:

· Refinancing rate - financing is understood as the forms, procedure, conditions, terms, and limits of lending by the Bank of Russia to commercial banks.

Refinancing is used to regulate liquidity.

The change in the refinancing rate provides for a change in the price of additional credit resources provided by the Central Bank to other banks.

· Norms of required reserves;

· Operations on the open market;

· Establishment of maximum levels of rates for individual operations and deals;

· Direct limitation of lending;

· Freezing% of rates;

Organizations can be classified according to the following criteria

 form of ownership:

• private;
• state;
• municipal;
• public;

Intended purpose:

• production of products;
• performance of work;
• service;

The breadth of the production profile:

• specialized;
• diversified;

• the nature of the combination of science and production;

• scientific;
• production;
• research and production;

 number of production stages:

• one-stage;
• multi-stage;

Location of the enterprise:

• on the same territory;
• at one geographic point;
• at different geographic points.

Classification of enterprises by ownership of capital

By ownership of capital and, accordingly, by control over the enterprise, national, foreign and joint (mixed) enterprises are distinguished.

National enterprise- an enterprise whose capital belongs to the entrepreneurs of their country. Nationality is also determined by the location and registration of the parent company.

Foreign company- an enterprise, the capital of which belongs to foreign entrepreneurs, fully or in a certain part, ensuring their control.

Foreign enterprises are formed either through the creation of a joint stock company or through the purchase of controlling stakes in local firms, leading to the emergence of foreign control. The latter method has become the most widespread in modern conditions, since it allows using the existing apparatus, communications, clientele and market knowledge by local firms.

Mixed enterprises- enterprises, the capital of which belongs to entrepreneurs of two or more countries. The registration of a mixed enterprise is carried out in the country of one of the founders on the basis of the legislation in force in it, which determines the location of its headquarters. Mixed enterprises are one of the varieties of the international entanglement of capital. Mixed ventures are called joint ventures when the purpose of their establishment is joint entrepreneurial activity ... The forms of companies with mixed capital are very diverse. Most often, international associations are created in the form of mixed companies: cartels, syndicates, trusts, concerns.

Multinational enterprises- enterprises whose capital belongs to entrepreneurs of several countries are called multinational. Multinational companies are formed by merging the assets of the merging firms different countries and issuing shares of the newly formed company. Other forms of formation of mixed capital companies are: exchange of shares between firms that retain legal independence; creation of joint companies, the share capital of which belongs to the founders on a parity basis or is distributed in certain proportions established by the legislation of the country of registration; the acquisition by a foreign company of a stake in a national firm that does not give it the right to control.

In modern conditions, the largest industrial firms are focusing on the creation of joint manufacturing enterprises, as well as enterprises for the implementation of scientific and technical cooperation, including for the joint use of patents and licenses, as well as the implementation of agreements on cooperation and specialization of production. Especially numerous joint ventures in new and rapidly growing industries requiring huge one-time investments, - in oil refining, petrochemistry, chemical industry, production of plastics, synthetic rubber, aluminum, in nuclear power. Joint ventures are also created as temporary associations for the implementation of large contracts for the construction of ports, dams, pipelines, irrigation and transport facilities, power plants, railways etc.

• Analysis of the external environment of the company
• Analysis of her internal situation
• Formation of the mission and goals of the company
• Choosing and developing a strategy at the level strategic zone management (SZH), firms
• Portfolio analysis of a diversified firm
• Organizational structure design
• Selection of the degree of integration and control systems
• Management of the "strategy - structure - control" complex
• Determination of the standards of behavior and policy of the company in certain areas of its activities
• Providing feedback on the results and strategy of the company
• Improving strategy, structure, management

The main stages of strategic management

• Determination of the scope of business and development of the purpose of the company
• Transformation of the purpose of the company into private long-term and short-term goals of activity
• Determination of a strategy for achieving business goals
• Strategy development and implementation
• Evaluation of activities, monitoring the situation and the introduction of corrective actions

Organization(from the Greek tool) is a targeted pooling of resources; component management, the essence of which is to coordinate the actions of individual elements of the system, to achieve mutual correspondence of the functioning of its parts.

Syschnoctorganizatsiikakfunktsiimenedzhmentazaklyuchaetsyavtom,iyacopganizatsionnoyctopony,tnosheniya,ktivnyecvyazimezhdyvcemielementamiyppavlyaemoycictemy,nnoctiipolnomochy,ymezhdypazlichnymividamipabot.

Functional basis of the organization

The principle of the organization of the organization structure of the company for the assignment of noteworthy performance;

Personnel for specific work

For a successful implementation of the function, it is necessary to take into account the requirements of the following local principles of organization;

Principles. Organization, its individual links work in the name of achieving the general goal (See Goal Setting, Mission);

Efficiency of the organization. When defining tasks and responsibilities should be set optimally between the freedom of action of individual workers and administrative authorities;

Stability. The control system must be built in such a way that its elements are not subject to coherent changes under the influence of external and external environment;

Continuous improvement. It presupposes the necessity of systematic organizational work to improve the process of organizing and implementing solutions;

Direct subordination. Any employee should have one boss;

Amount of control. The manager, in the state of the qualified, provides and monitors the work of the limited number of subordinates; the unconditional responsibility of the supervisor for the actions of the subordinates;

The size of the responsibility to these full powers;

Exceptions. The decisions of the repeating character are reduced to the pythonic, the implementation of which is carried out by the lower management links;

Priority of functions. The control function waits for the control unit, but not for the operation. combining. It is imperative to ensure the correct balance of centralism and self-reliance. ...

Implementation problems

Decisions made alone or by several managers without the involvement of the team sometimes become not just snow on the head of employees, but a real natural disaster. In such cases, the main thing is to correctly broadcast already ready-made solution to all levels of the organization. There are three reasons why decisions made by small management teams fail:

1. Loss of communication between the parties. The decision made can confuse employees who were not involved in the process of its development, seem incomprehensible and even threatening. Lacking information about what facts were considered, what alternatives were discussed and what difficulties were overcome, they are simply not psychologically ready to understand what they are being told about.

2. A mistake in the distribution of responsibility. Leaders often miss the mark in deciding who is responsible for further broadcasting their decision. Some top managers are sincerely convinced that their only task is to find this solution. And whose task is to bring it to the masses remains unclear.

The management process is the activity of the subjects of management, united in a certain system, aimed at achieving the goals of the company by implementing certain functions using management methods.

As a rule, the processes of company management are very diverse (see Section 3), multidimensional and have a complex structure (they consist of a large number of stages and phases). In a general sense, the control process consists of general control functions that are combined into control cycles (Fig. 23).

See sheets

The quality of management decisions is understood as a set of decision parameters that ensure their successful implementation. As part of the properties of management decisions, the following are distinguished:

1. validity as the need to take into account the entire set of factors and conditions associated with the development of a solution. This is its comprehensive balance in terms of time, resources and goals: if the wrong goals are chosen, the mistake will appear quickly, and adjustments are easy to make. Executors must be convinced that the decision is justified;
2. timeliness as the need to overcome, eliminate, mitigate the emerging contradiction. The timeliness of a decision is determined by the stage at which it is made: at the very beginning, when the conflict is still emerging and it can be eliminated without great expense; during the period when he matured and acquired sharp, open forms and large losses and costs are already inevitable, or at the stage when nothing can be changed and all that remains is to calculate the losses and punish the "switchmen";
3. cost-effectiveness of the solution means high end results at the lowest cost, materialization of an advanced management concept in the choice of strategic directions, driving forces and deadlines;
4. efficiency, that is, decision-making should most fully ensure the achievement of the goal set by the organization;
5. feasibility, that is, the solution must be realistically feasible, and unrealistic abstract decisions cannot be made. The decision made must correspond to the forces and means of the team implementing it.

Additional parameters-requirements can be as follows: consistency, specificity, eligibility, etc.

These properties of management decisions make it possible to objectively answer the following questions:

• what to do (what new needs of consumers need to be satisfied or at what quality level is it necessary to satisfy old needs)?
• how to do it (by what technology)?
• with which production costs make?
• in what quantity and in what time frame?
• where (place, production area, personnel)?
• to whom to supply and at what price?
• what will this give the investor and society as a whole?

The objective economic conditions for the development of high-quality management decisions are as follows:

• knowledge of the leader, manager of objective development trends management facility and the ability to use them for the benefit of the organization;
• orientation in the general goals of economic development of the country, region, city and determination, based on this, of the specific tasks of their organization;
• the ability to respond in a timely manner to a changing situation and to new tasks put forward by the market, economic policy of the state, region, etc.

The qualitative level of management decisions is influenced by two groups of factors:

• factors of a situational nature associated with the awareness of the problem: they act before a decision is made and consist in the ability to formulate a problem, predict the consequences;
• factors of a behavioral nature: management style of the leader, political and socio-economic environment, social and legal norms, motives and interests, qualifications and personal characteristics of the leader.

Methods of communicating the decisions made to the executor play a special role in achieving the effectiveness of decisions.

1. The role of managerial decisions in management.

For a manager, decision making is a constant and highly responsible job. The need to make decisions permeates everything that a manager of any level does, formulating goals and achieving them. Since decisions are made not only for the manager, but for other people and, in many cases, the entire organization, understanding the nature and essence of decision making is extremely important for anyone who wants to succeed in management.

Ultimately, a managerial decision is presented as a result of managerial activity in a broader sense, managerial decision is considered as the main type of managerial work, a set of interrelated, purposeful and logically consistent managerial actions that ensure the implementation of managerial tasks.

They can be classified according to numerous criteria. However, the defining moment is the conditions in which the decision is made. Usually decisions are made in an environment of certainty, risk, uncertainty.

Under conditions of certainty, the manager is relatively confident about the results of each of the alternatives.

In an environment of risk (uncertainty), the most a manager can do is determine the likelihood of success for each alternative.

In this case, the organization's own culture, values ​​and traditions are important. Employees are exposed to the culture of the organization and therefore do not consider options for addressing it.

There are other criteria for the classification of management decisions:

· By the period of validity of the consequences of the decision: long-, medium- and short-term;

· By frequency of adoption: one-time (random) and repetitive;

· By coverage: general (applicable to all employees) and highly specialized;

· In the form of preparation: individual, group and collective decisions;

· Simple and complex in complexity;

· By the rigidity of regulation: contour, structured and algomitric.

Outline solutions only roughly indicate the scheme of action of subordinates and give them a wide scope for choosing techniques and methods of their implementation.

Structured ones involve strict regulation of the actions of subordinates. The initiative on their part can be manifested only in the solution of secondary issues.

Algorithmic - extremely rigidly regulate the activities of subordinates and practically exclude their initiative.

Of particular interest is the classification of management decisions given by M. Mescon, M. Albert and F. Hedouri, who distinguish organizational, intuitive and rational decisions.

An organizational decision is a choice a manager must make in order to fulfill the responsibilities of the position. The purpose of the organizational solution is to ensure movement towards the tasks set for the organization.

Organizational decisions can be divided into two groups:

In a programmed solution, the number of possible alternatives is limited and the choice must be made in the redistribution of the directions given by the organization.

Unprogrammed solutions are solutions that require, to a certain extent, new situations, they are not internally designed or are associated with unknown factors. The unprogrammed ones include decisions on the following questions: what should be the goals of the organization? how to improve products? how to improve the structure? etc.

In practice, few management decisions turn out to be programmed or unprogrammed in pure form... In fact, the process of making organizational decisions is very closely related to the process of managing the organization as a whole.

In the literature, classifications of management decisions are built on a variety of grounds. One of the classification of A.I. Prigogine is to take into account the measure of the contribution of the subject of the decision to organizational changes. According to the author, all management decisions in an organization can be divided into:

1) rigidly conditioned (deterministic)

2) decisions that are weakly dependent on the subject.

The former usually include either the so-called standardized solution (conditioned by the precepts and orders adopted above), or secondary to the location of the superior organization. This type of decision is practically independent of the qualities and orientation of the leader.

Another type of decision is the so-called initiative decisions, where the qualities of the leader leave a serious imprint on the nature of the decisions made. These include decisions related to both local changes in the organization (rewards, punishments) and changes in the mechanisms, structure, and goals of the organization. An initiative decision is usually considered as a choice of alternative behavior from several possible ones, each of which entails a number of positive and negative consequences... Among the factors influencing the quality of decisions, it is noted: the competence of the personnel, the business and personal qualities of the leader, his role (official, functional, group, civil, family) positions.

A large place among the listed factors is given to the problem of the reliability of communication information, interference arising during the transmission of information. Among the latter, much attention is paid to the provisions related to the specifics of the role position and interests of those who process information in the process of its passage from the lower tiers of the organization to the subject of the decision.

One of the important factors affecting the quality of management decisions is the number of tiers in the organization, an increase in which leads to distortion of information in the preparation of a decision, distortion of orders coming from the subject of management, and increases the sluggishness of the organization.

Management decision is a directive act of purposeful impact on the object of management, based on the analysis of reliable data characterizing a specific management situation, the definition of the goal of action, and containing a program to achieve the goal. Management decisions differ:
- by management time for strategic, tactical, operational;
- according to the degree of participation of specialists in individual, collective, collegial;
- according to the content of the management process into social, economic, organizational, technical.

Table 6.2

Classification of management decisions

Repeatability of the problem. Depending on the recurrence of the problem to be solved, all management decisions can be subdivided into traditional, previously encountered in management practice, when it is only necessary to make a choice from the existing alternatives, and atypical, non-standard solutions, when their search is primarily associated with the generation of new alternatives. ...

Significance of the goal. Decision-making can pursue its own, independent goal, or it can be a means to help achieve a goal of a higher order. Accordingly, decisions can be strategic and tactical.

Scope of influence. The result of the decision may affect one or more parts of the organization. In this case, the solutions can be considered local. Decisions, however, can be made with the aim of influencing the work of the organization as a whole, in this case it will be global.

Duration of implementation. The solution may take hours, days or months to complete. If between the adoption of the decision and the completion of its implementation a comparatively short term- a short-term solution. At the same time, the number and importance of long-term, promising decisions, the results of the implementation of which can be removed for several years, is increasing.

Predicted consequences of the decision. Most of the management decisions in the process of their implementation, one way or another, can be adjusted in order to eliminate any deviations or take into account new factors, i.e. correctable. At the same time, there are also solutions, the consequences of which are irreversible.

The nature of the information used. Depending on the degree of completeness and reliability of the information available to the manager, management decisions can be deterministic (made in conditions of certainty) or probabilistic (made in conditions of risk or uncertainty). These decisions play an extremely important role in decision making. Deterministic decisions are made in conditions of certainty, when the manager has almost complete and reliable information regarding the problem being solved, this allows him to know exactly the results of each of the alternative choices. There is only one such result, and the probability of its occurrence is close to one. However, few decisions are made in conditions of certainty. Most management decisions are probabilistic.

Decisions made under conditions of risk or uncertainty are called probabilistic. Decisions made in the face of risk include those whose outcomes are not definite, but the probability of each outcome is known. Probability is defined as the degree of possibility of the occurrence of a given event and varies from zero to one. The sum of the probabilities of all alternatives must be equal to one. Probability can be determined mathematical methods based statistical analysis experimental data. The probability calculated on the basis of information that makes it possible to make a statistically reliable prediction is called objective.

A decision is made in conditions of uncertainty, when, due to lack of information, it is impossible to quantify the likelihood of its possible outcomes. This is quite common when solving new, atypical problems, when the factors that need to be taken into account are so new and or complex that it is impossible to get enough information about them. Uncertainty is also characteristic of some decisions that have to be made in rapidly changing situations. As a result, the likelihood of a particular alternative cannot be estimated with a sufficient degree of certainty.

When faced with uncertainty, the manager can use two main possibilities:

try to get additional information and analyze the problem again in order to reduce its novelty and complexity. Combined with experience and intuition, this enables him to assess the subjective, perceived likelihood of possible outcomes;

when there is not enough time and / or funds to collect additional information, you have to rely on past experience and intuition when making a decision.

Solution development method. Some solutions, as a rule, are typical, repetitive, can be successfully formalized, i.e. taken according to a predetermined algorithm. In other words, formalized are the result of performing a predetermined sequence of actions. Formalization of decision-making increases the efficiency of management. As a result of reducing the likelihood of error and saving time: you do not need to re-develop the solution every time the appropriate situation arises.

At the same time, in the process of managing organizations, there are often new, atypical situations and non-standard problems that do not lend themselves to formalized solutions. In such cases, an important role is played by intellectual abilities, talent and personal initiative of the manager.

In practice, most solutions take an intermediate position between these two. extreme points, allowing in the process of their development both the manifestation of personal initiative and the application of a formal procedure.

The number of selection criteria. If the choice of the best alternative is made according to only one criterion, then the decision made will be simple, one-criterion. Conversely, when the chosen alternative must satisfy several criteria at the same time, the decision will be complex, multi-criteria.

Acceptance form. The person making the choice from the available alternatives of the final decision can be one person and his decision will be accordingly sole. However, in modern management practice, complex situations are increasingly encountered.

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The basis for making effective management decisions is quality information. Features of management decisions:

validity;

timeliness;

complexity of the approach;

legality;

clear formulation of tasks;

feasibility of execution;

continuity and inconsistency in relation to earlier decisions.

Since the manager during his activity is forced to constantly make decisions, he accumulates certain experience in this area. Therefore, we can talk about control technology, i.e. a certain system of actions in the field of management in solving any problems.

In many respects, the management technology depends on the personal qualities of the leader, his national characteristics, the characteristics of management adopted in a particular country.

Management decision is a creative act of the subject of management, aimed at eliminating problems that have arisen in the object of management. Any management decision goes through three stages. Let's consider them.

The first stage - understanding the problem - includes: collecting information; analysis of information; clarification of its relevance; determining the conditions under which the problem will be solved.

The second stage - drawing up a solution plan - includes: developing alternative solutions; comparing them with available resources; assessment of alternative options for social impact; evaluating them by economic efficiency; preparation of solution programs; development of a detailed solution plan.

The third stage - implementation of the decision - includes: communicating decisions to specific executors; development of incentives and punishments; control over the implementation of decisions.

The manager's work on making a decision consists of a number of stages: defining the management goal; diagnosing the problem; collection of information, both basic and additional; definition of criteria and limitations; preparation of options for solutions, including alternative ones; assessment of options for solutions; selection of the final version.

Decision making is the main link - this is the creative stage.

But making a decision is half the battle. No less important for a manager is the ability to organize the implementation of the decision made, to control it.

The decision is made by the head and is the definition of the range of actions of the control system or its subdivisions to achieve the set goals and objectives by the controlled system.

So, the management decision is the choice of the best alternative from among the possible, which presupposes a set of effective actions to improve the organization of enterprise management.

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The communication process is the exchange of information between two or more people. There are four basic elements in the communication process:

a) sender - a person who generates ideas or collects information and transfers it;

b) message - the actual information encoded using symbols;

v) channel, i.e. information transmission means;

G) recipient - the person (s) to whom the information is intended.

Classification of communications in the management process

Internal communications are communications within an enterprise, between different employees. Internal communications are subdivided into:

a) upward communication is the process of transferring information from performers (subordinates) to the leader. b) downward communication is the process of communication between the manager and his subordinates.

v) horizontal communication is the process of exchanging information between employees of the same level.

In addition to the division into internal and external, communications are subdivided into verbal and non-verbal.

Verbal communication is the process of communication using words, which can be written and oral. Non-verbal communication is communication using facial expressions, gestures , poses, views (it is not for nothing that the expression "speaking look" is found).

They also distinguish by means of speech communication (written or oral), paralinguistic communication (gesture, facial expressions, melody) and material-sign communication (product samples, fine arts).

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The main purpose of communication is to ensure mutual understanding of people participating in information exchange. However, the mere fact of information exchange does not yet guarantee the effectiveness of communication. Quite often, the transmitted message turns out to be misunderstood and, therefore, communications are ineffective. In order to better understand the essence of the information exchange process and the conditions for its effectiveness, we will consider the main elements and stages of the communication process.

In the process of information exchange, there are four elements.

1. Sender, a person who decided to convey information (idea, message) or express emotions, feelings.

2. A message, information itself, a clearly formulated thought, encoded using symbols. The meaning and meaning of a message represent the sender's ideas, facts, values, feelings, and attitudes. In this case, the sender expects that the message will be received with the same value that it contains.

3. Channel, means of transmitting information. With its help, it is directed to the specified addressee. Channels can be a telephone line, a radio wave, air transmitting oral speech, computer networks, letter-post delivery channels, etc. If a channel at the time of transmission or exchange of information connects more than two organizational units, it forms an information network.

4. The recipient, the person to whom the information is intended and who interprets it.

Here are the steps.
1. Generating an idea.
2. Encoding and channel selection.
3. Transfer.
4. Decoding.

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What is the importance of feedback and information noise in the communication process?

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Information is understood as a set of information and signals about processes and phenomena occurring in the external environment and the human body itself.

Management information is a collection of information about the state and processes occurring inside and outside the organization. Information about the objects of management and the events and processes occurring in them, not without reason, call them a kind of model, as well as a verbal or digital portrait.

When giving the characteristics of information, the following indicators are used: volume, reliability, value, saturation, openness.

They are classified depending on which metal plays the role of money. They are subdivided into monometallic and bimetallic (Table 4.1).

According to the types of data and knowledge used, expert systems are classified into systems with deterministic (well-defined) knowledge and uncertain knowledge. Uncertainty of knowledge (data) is understood as their incompleteness (absence), unreliability (inaccuracy of measurement), ambiguity (ambiguity of concepts), fuzziness (qualitative assessment instead of quantitative).

To classify a patent document means to determine that part of the classification system to which (in accordance with its technical essence) the claimed invention belongs, and to designate its classification index. Sometimes the classification refers not only to the claimed invention, but also to other disclosing sources contained in the patent document.

As a continuation of his research, Likert proposed four basic systems of leadership style. He calculated that these four systems shown in Fig. 17.3. Will help to classify the behavior of leaders. We provide them here as a guide to help you understand that there are intermediates in the leadership style continuum. options. As you read the description of these systems, you will see that they are characterized by the varying degrees of authoritarian and democratic style required to influence people to achieve organizational goals.

This seemingly simple, but, as it turned out, productive idea requires serious development and careful implementation of common operational systems that closely interact with product quality control systems. Their use leads to an increase in productivity, an increase in the motivation of workers, an improvement in working conditions, and helps to create comfortable jobs. The material of the chapter will be very useful, since it contains constructive ideas and gives specific information about the features and components of the ECO, classifies when operating equipment, shows ways to determine the effectiveness of using existing equipment, and reveals a program for the development and implementation of the system. There is something to think about, given the work carried out in the national economy on the certification of workplaces and their rationalization, the general orientation of the activities of enterprises to increase their efficiency, or, as the Japanese authors write, to improve the company.

SPU systems are classified according to the following main features a) the organizational structure and the nature of the functioning of the control object b) the nature of the network models used and the tasks being solved c) the information processing tools used (Fig. 7.2).

The solutions used are classified according to such characteristics as the amount of the dispersed system (ordinary, weighted, low-clay), the method of chemical treatment (more naturally, silicate, calcium, etc.), the content of the gas phase, the nature of the liquid phase (fresh water, oil base, etc.) .), purpose (complicated drilling conditions, well completion, string perforation, etc.). The variety of chemicals used can be divided into three groups

In addition to classifying by type, AIS can also classify information by scope and time frame. As we continue our discussion, we will see that the classification systems complement each other. Anthony (1965) constructed the information "hierarchy" shown in Fig. 1.2, the levels of which correspond to the various levels of management of the organization.

Such rationing under the conditions of the standard-cost system is carried out in relation to all costs associated with the production and sale of products. Ultimately, the standard (target) cost is calculated. To calculate it, all costs associated with the manufacture of products are preliminarily classified by items of expenditure. In practice, in some cases it is difficult to determine to which group certain costs belong. And then the manager must resolve this issue on his own.

Based on the essence of this system, it can be classified as investment-oriented.

In order to serve department managers in this way, it is necessary, first of all, that the system collects and classifies the main costs of the organization. According to modern estimates in Western firms, for every ruble of sales, ninety-five kopecks goes into a variety of costs.

On action simple piecework system Payment deviations do not arise if the worker's earnings do not fall below the guaranteed hourly rate, and appropriate tolerance standards are required to ensure that piecework earnings are guaranteed. Such standards should be classified as variances in labor costs. These are usually viewed as efficiency variances, although they may include variances in wage rates. In this case, deviations in rate and efficiency cannot be separated without referring to the data on working hours and pay rates, on the basis of which the piece rate was determined.

Identify the other two key ingredients for an effective management system, well-functioning communication and human relations. How would you classify the firm you are studying in this regard

In terms of composition, sources, directions of use and other characteristics, budgetary revenues and expenditures are varied. In order to ensure planning and accounting of income and expenses within the unified budgetary system of the country, they are classified. Grouping according to homogeneous features of budget revenues and expenditures, located and encrypted in the prescribed manner, is the budget classification.

B s factors affecting the results of financial and economic activities can be classified according to various criteria, significant and secondary, permanent and temporary, general and specific, extensive and intensive, measurable and not measurable, etc. From the standpoint of economic analysis in socio-economic systems, identification of the factors of extensive and intensive development is of particular importance. A correct understanding of such a classification is necessary to determine the level of intensification of production, as well as to more fully activate the intensive factors of growth.

The basis of any classification (including the aggregate of synthetic accounting accounts) is the rationale for the choice of features by which synthetic accounts and their groups are distinguished. In the 50s, scientists of the USSR were controversial on one or more grounds, it is necessary to classify accounting accounts. Representatives of the first direction were of the opinion that one classification by economic content is sufficient. Supporters of the second, prevailing direction, which is still prevalent in educational and scientific literature today, argued that, in addition to classification according to the economic criterion, showing what is taken into account in the account, a second classification is also needed - according to the structure and purpose of accounts, showing how registration of facts of economic life in accounts, regardless of what is recorded in these accounts. Here the statement of V.F.Paly is quite appropriate)