Test tasks on the history of soil science. Questions for the exam in soil science. Silt thin is mechanical elements of the size
Soil science - the science of soils, their formation (genesis), structure, composition and properties; about the patterns of their geographical distribution; on the processes of interrelation with the external environment, which determine the formation and development of the most important property of soils - fertility; about the ways of rational use of soils in agriculture and the national economy and about changing the soil cover in agricultural conditions.
The first attempts to generalize the knowledge about soil accumulated by farmers date back to the ancient period. So, in the writings of the ancient Greek philosophers Aristotle and Theophrastus, there is a division of soils into beautiful, good, fertile, acceptable, depleted, poor, barren. However, the development of soil science as a science began much later.
Soil science as a science originated in Russia, where its scientific foundations and main research methods were developed. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was opened in Russia, then the first studies of soils by Russian scientists began. MV Lomonosov was the first to express the idea that soil development proceeds in time as a result of the interaction of plants and rocks. In the second half of the nineteenth century. In the provinces of the European part of Russia, work on land valuation, which was carried out by agronomists and economists on the basis of a survey-statistical method, in connection with taxation and the development of the grain trade, is becoming widespread. The first survey soil maps of the European part of Russia were compiled, on which some boundaries of soil zones were outlined.
V.V.Dokuchaev (1846-1903) was the creator of soil science, a new scientific discipline - natural history, or genetic, soil science. In his major work "Russian Chernozem" (1883), he finally substantiates the plant-terrestrial origin of chernozems under steppe vegetation, for the first time systematically describes their morphological profiles and considers their geographical distribution in connection with soil formation conditions. He showed that the soil is constantly changing in time and space. The period associated with the activities of V.V.Dokuchaev, which determined the creation of scientific genetic soil science, went down in its history as the Dokuchaev stage.
A new stage in the development of Russian soil science begins in the early years of the 20th century. in connection with the growth of capitalist relations in the countryside, with its class stratification and with the resettlement movement of peasants in the east. Soil research is carried out on a large scale using the Dokuchaev method in many provinces of the European part of Russia at the expense of provincial zemstvos. An outstanding role during this period belongs to KD Glinka (1867-1927). He was the head of soil research at the Main Resettlement Administration, a leading soil scientist at the Dokuchaevsky Soil Committee. He performed a number of original works on the weathering of rocks, genesis, geography and classification of soils.
The Great October Socialist Revolution marked the beginning of the Soviet period in the development of soil science. The nationalization of the land and the subsequent socialist reconstruction of agriculture radically changed the conditions for the development of soil science and the use of its achievements in the national economy. In 1927-1930. soil research is being widely developed in Central Asia, Kazakhstan, the Caucasus, Ukraine, and Belarus. Under the editorship of K.D. Glinka, soil maps of the Asian part of the USSR (1927) and the European part of the USSR (1930) are compiled, physics, chemistry, soil biology, the doctrine of genesis, geography and soil cartography are developing. K.K. Gedroyts (1872-1932) gave a deep analysis of the colloidal properties of soils and showed their importance for the development of agricultural plants, and also developed a theoretical basis for measures for liming and phosphorizing acid soils, gypsum salt licks, etc. Important in the development of geography, ecology and evolution soils had the works of S. S. Neustruev (1874-1928) "Elements of soil geography" and "Soils and erosion cycles".
The next period of Soviet soil science coincides with the reconstruction period in the life of our country. In connection with the collectivization of agriculture and the organization of collective and state farms, the question arose of the relationship between soil science and agriculture and with the problems of agricultural production. At this time, large-scale surveys of the soil cover for the purposes of land management were widely carried out in the country, the principles and methods of these surveys were being improved (L.I. Prasolov, K.P. Gorshenin, A.A. Krasyuk, and others). Agrochemical research is carried out on large areas
After World War II, the development of Soviet soil science is characterized by the further development of theoretical research, a new cycle of large-scale soil surveys for the territory of enlarged collective and state farms, the development of biological ideas in soil science, and active participation in solving problems for the further development of agricultural production.
In the modern period, the role of soil science in the rational use of soils, their correct assessment for land reclamation, the effective use of fertilizers, the development of measures to combat erosion and protect soils, has especially increased.
The concept of soil and soil fertility.
The first scientific definition of the concept of "soil" was given by V.V. Dokuchaev. He was the first to establish that the soil is an independent natural body, formed as a result of the combined activity of five factors of soil formation: parent rock, plant and animal organisms, climate, terrain, age of the country.
An essential property of soil is fertility, which distinguishes soil from barren rock. Fertility is understood as the ability of the soil to meet the needs of plants for nutrients and water. Unlike cosmic factors (light and heat) obtained from the sun, water and nutrients are terrestrial factors that can be influenced in order to provide them with cultivated plants throughout the growing season. This determines the importance of soil as the main means of agricultural production.
General scheme of the soil-forming process.
The soil-forming process is a set of phenomena, the transformation and movement of substances and energy flowing in the soil mass. The leading role in soil formation belongs to higher plants and microorganisms, their metabolic products, water, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
The staging of the soil-forming process:
The transformation (transformation) of the minerals of the rock from which the soil is formed (weathering processes).
Accumulation of organic residues and their transformation (formation of humus).
The interaction of mineral and organic substances with the formation of a complex system of organo-mineral compounds.
Accumulation of biophilic elements in the upper part of the soil, and first of all, plant nutrients.
Movement of soil formation products with moisture flow along the profile of the forming soil.
Factors of soil formation.
- Climate... This factor of soil formation is associated with the supply of water to the soil, which is necessary for plant life and for the dissolution of mineral nutrients. The activity of biological processes depends on the climate. The amount of solar energy reaching the earth's surface increases from the poles to the equator.
- Relief. The role of the relief in the soil-forming process is manifested in the redistribution and different amounts of heat supplied to slopes of different exposure. The relief affects the relative age of soils, since in different conditions the soil-forming process can proceed at different rates.
- Biological factor. The leading role in the formation and formation of soil fertility belongs to three groups of organisms - green plants, microorganisms and animals. Each of these groups of organisms performs its functions, but only when they work together, the parent rock turns into soil.
- Human production activity. The cultivated soil is subjected to a strong influence of processing tools, its composition and properties are influenced by the applied fertilizers, reclamation measures, etc. Moreover, its properties change much faster than it happens in natural conditions. The action of natural factors continues, but is greatly modified.
- Soil age. In the development of the soil, absolute and relative ages are distinguished.
The absolute age is determined by the time elapsed from the beginning of the emergence of the soil to the present stage of its development. The earlier the territory was freed from the sea or glacier, the older the soil is. This is due to the total manifestation of biological processes.
The relative age depends on the topography and properties of the parent rocks. These factors affect the intensity of soil-forming processes.
The role of climate as a factor of soil formation.
Climate. This factor of soil formation is associated with the supply of water to the soil, which is necessary for plant life and for the dissolution of mineral nutrients. The activity of biological processes depends on the climate. The amount of solar energy reaching the earth's surface increases from the poles to the equator.
Climate elements such as precipitation, evaporation and temperature are of great importance. Atmospheric precipitation falling on the earth's surface is spent on evaporation, filtration into the lower horizons, runoff along slopes, and plant growth and development. In this case, dissolved substances and mechanical particles move with water both along the soil surface and along its vertical profile.
In the process of exchange of heat and moisture between the soil and the atmosphere, a certain hydrothermal regime of the soil is established. In each natural zone, the climate is characterized by temperature conditions and moisture
The speed of chemical and biochemical processes, weathering, biological productivity of plants, etc. depend on the temperature and moisture conditions. The distribution of precipitation over the seasons, as well as the continental climate, affect the formation of soils. The severity of winter, the thickness of the snow cover and the strength of the wind affect the soil-forming process mainly through vegetation and biological soil processes.
The role of wind as one of the climate elements is manifested in its effect on the relief and vegetation. In open, leveled areas, dusty and sandy particles are carried away by the wind, the soil layer is often demolished, and hilly and alluvial landforms are created. In an arid climate, the wind (dry wind) causes burnout of crops and natural vegetation. The wind affects the distribution of snow over the surface, causing uneven freezing and soil moisture.
The role of relief as a factor in soil formation
The role of the relief in the soil-forming process is manifested in the redistribution and different amounts of heat supplied to slopes of different exposure. The relief influences the relative age of the soils, since in different conditions the soil-forming process can proceed at different rates. So, in the forest-steppe zone, as well as in the mountains on the northern slopes, a forest often grows and sod-podzolic or gray forest soils are formed. On the southern slopes, covered with grassy vegetation, steppe chernozems or even chestnut soils are formed. The southern slopes are always warmer and drier than the northern ones, therefore, unequal soil formation conditions are created on slopes of different exposure.
Parent rocks. In the same natural conditions, but on different parent rocks, different soils can form. This is due to the fact that the soil inherits from the parent rock the granulometric, mineralogical and chemical composition, as well as physical properties. The biological productivity, the rate of decomposition of plant residues and the formation of humus depend on the parent rocks. So, in the taiga-forest zone, low-fertile podzolic soils are formed on an aluminosilicate moraine, and soils with high fertility, with a well-developed humus horizon, are formed on a carbonate moraine. In the southern zones, salt marshes and saline soils are formed on saline rocks.
The role of organisms as a factor in soil formation
The leading role in the formation and formation of soil fertility belongs to three groups of organisms - green plants, microorganisms and animals. Each of these groups of organisms performs its functions, but only when they work together, the parent rock turns into soil.
Green plants synthesize organic matter. After the end of the plant life cycle, part of the biomass in the form of root residues and ground litter returns to the soil annually. In the upper horizons, nutrients are accumulated, organic matter is formed and destroyed. Together with biomass, solar energy is accumulated in soils.
The distribution of vegetation obeys the law of latitudinal zoning. In each natural zone, the productivity of plant communities depends on climatic and soil conditions.
Morphological characteristics of soils.
Morphological characteristics of soil - Morphological or external characteristics of soils are formed in the process of soil formation, therefore, they reflect important processes and phenomena occurring in the soil.
The main morphological features are: the structure of the profile, the thickness of the soil and its individual horizons, the color of the soil horizons, soil moisture, particle size distribution, structure, inclusions, new formations, the depth of occurrence of carbonates, groundwater, the nature of the transition to the next horizon.
Soil structure and structure.
The property of the soil, expressed in its ability to divide in its natural state into lumps, different in shape and size. If the soil during processing does not disintegrate into lumps, but splits into large lumps, then it is called structureless. Virgin and intermittent chernozems have good lumpy soil. In most cases, podzols are weakly structural and structureless. Structural soil provides the best conditions for obtaining the highest and most stable yields, since such soil completely absorbs and retains rainfall water well; gas exchange, necessary for the life of microorganisms, takes place well in it, and normal conditions for processing and sowing rast are fully provided.
According to all these characteristics, unstructured soils do not represent good living conditions for agricultural crops. rast.
S. p. Is created by correct processing and culture of perennial grasses. S.'s strength of the item depends on humus containing absorbed calcium (see. Soil absorption capacity). To improve the crop production on unstructured soils, it is necessary to sow mixtures of perennial grasses (clover, timothy grass).
Granulometric composition of soils.
The granulometric composition of the soil is the ratio of particles of various sizes, expressed as a percentage.
The solid phase of soils and parent rocks consists of particles of various sizes. The individual particles (granules) are called mechanical elements. The soil is dominated by mineral particles formed during the weathering of rocks. In addition to the mineral part, the soil contains organic particles, the origin of which is due to biological processes; the presence of a small amount of organo-mineral fractions in the soil is associated with the processes of interaction of mineral and organic components.
The structure of the soil profile of the main types of soils.
A soil profile is a defined vertical sequence of genetic horizons within a soil individual, specific to each type of soil formation
The soil profile characterizes the change in its properties along the vertical, associated with the impact of the soil-forming process on the parent rock. There is a regular, depending on the type of soil formation, change in the granulometric, mineralogical, chemical composition, physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil body from the soil surface down to the parent rock unaffected by soil formation.
The main factors of soil cover formation, i.e. differentiation of the original parent rock into genetic horizons, these are vertical flows of matter and energy and vertical distribution of living matter (root systems of plants, microorganisms, soil-dwelling animals).
In the Russian school of soil science, soil diagnostics are based on several principles, the main features of which were formulated in the works of V.V. Dokuchaev and his associates: 1) profile method; 2) an integrated approach; 3) comparative geographical analysis (method); 4) the genetic principle.
Sources of humus in the soil and their chemical composition.
Humic substances are a heterogeneous polydisperse system of high molecular weight nitrogen-containing aromatic compounds of acidic nature. The humus content in soils varies from 0.5% in desert soils to 15% in chernozems of the forest-steppe zone. All genetic and agronomic properties and regimes of soils are related to the content and composition of organic matter.
Sources of humus:
Plant remains
Remains of animals and microorganisms
Plants in BGC have a biomass that exceeds the biomass of animals and microorganisms by tens and hundreds of times. Therefore, plant litter and metabolic products of higher plants provide the main material from which humus is formed. The specific chemical composition of animals and microorganisms, the high content of proteins in them determine their role in the enrichment of humus with nitrogen.
In the composition of humus, 3 groups are distinguished: humic acids (HA), fulvic acids (FA), humins.
Humic acids (HAs) are a group of dark-colored from brown to black HAs that dissolve well in mineral acids and in water.
The processes of transformation of organic residues in the soil.
The plant residues entering the soil undergo various transformation processes in the latter, as a result of which a significant part of the organic material is destroyed with the formation of simple mineral compounds (CO2, H2O, NH3, HNO3, etc.), and the other part, changing, becomes more stable. the form of soil organic matter, called humus, or humus.
The processes of transformation of plant residues in the soil are caused by various factors, and in this regard, the following categories can be outlined: 1) chemical changes in plant residues under the influence of vaults and air with the participation of enzymes present in plant residues and under the influence of mineral catalysts; 2) changes under the influence of animal activities; 3) changes caused by the activity of microorganisms.
The listed categories of processes occur simultaneously, closely intertwining with each other; therefore, the elucidation of their relative role in the general complex of the phenomena of decomposition and humus formation is a very difficult and as yet not completely solved problem.
Indicators of the humus state of soils.
Very high ≥ 10%
High 6-10
Average 4-6
Low 2-4
Very low ≤2
Humus reserves in the soil - the amount of humus in t / ha for the soil layer: 0-20 / 0-100 cm.
Very high ≥ 200/600
High 150-200 / 400-600
Average 100-150 / 200-400
Low 50-100 / 100-200
Very low ≤50 / 100
Nitrogen enrichment - ratio of carbon to nitrogen (C / N)
Very high ≤ 5
High 5-8
Average 8-11
Low 11-14
Very low ≥ 14
The humus type is the ratio of the carbon of humic acids to the carbon of fulvic acids (Cg / Cfc)
Humate ≥2
Fulvate-humate 2-1
Humate-fulvate 1-0.5
Fulvate ≤0.5
The role and significance of humus
Formation of a specific soil profile
Creation of an agronomically valuable soil structure. Humic substances have adhesive properties.
Formation of physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil. Humus is a factor in soil absorption capacity. The more humus, the greater the absorption capacity of the soil.
Humus is a source of mineral nutrition elements for plants and microorganisms. With humus mineralization, nitrates, phosphates, sulfates become available to plants.
Humus is a source of carbon dioxide for plants. The soil provides 65% of the carbon dioxide required for the photosynthesis process.
Humus is a source of biologically active substances. Humic substances are biostimulants, that is, they act as growth substances and enzymes.
Humic substances give the soil a parietal color and promote intense absorption of thermal solar energy. Organic matter protects the soil from rapid loss of heat and water to the atmosphere.
Humus promotes the fixation of pollutants in the soil and thereby reduces the flow of toxins into the soil.
Humus contributes to the strengthening of microbiological degradation of pesticides.
Humic substances enhance the ability of soils to resist erosion.
Measures to increase the humus content.
- Application of organic fertilizers to the soil (manure, composts, peat)
- Application of green fertilizers
Grass sowing
Liming of acidic soils and gypsum of salt licks
Rational crop rotations and minimum tillage
Anti-erosion measures
Soil absorption capacity
This is the ability of soils to absorb liquids, gases, salt solutions and retain solid particles, as well as living microorganisms.
Types of soil absorption capacity
Mechanical absorption capacity
Biological absorption capacity is expressed in the absorption of substances by soil biota and plant roots from the soil solution
Physical absorption capacity, according to K.K Gedroyts, represents the change in the concentration of solute molecules on the surface of solid soil particles.
Chemical absorption capacity
Exchangeable absorption capacity
Exchangeable acids and anions and their effect on soil properties
Photos on the phone 4314-4320
Acidity and alkalinity of soils
Soil acidity is the ability of the soil to acidify the soil solution due to the presence in the soil of organic and mineral acids, acidic and hydrolytically acidic salts, as well as exchange ions H + and AL3 +
Soil alkalinity is the ability of the soil to alkalize the soil solution. Distinguish between actual and potential alkalinity.
Water properties of soils
The most important water properties of soils include water permeability, water-lifting capacity, and water-holding capacity of soils.
Water permeability is the ability of the soil to absorb and pass water through it. The permeability process involves absorbing moisture and filtering it out.
Water-lifting capacity - the property of the soil to raise water through the capillaries. Water in soil capillaries forms a concave meniscus, on the surface of which surface tension is created. The thinner the capillary, the more concave the meniscus and, accordingly, the higher the water-lifting capacity.
Water holding capacity is the ability of the soil to retain water. Depending on the water-retaining forces, the maximum adsorption, capillary, maximum field and total moisture capacity are distinguished.
Types of soil water regime
In different soil and climatic zones and in certain areas of the terrain, the water balance is formed in different ways. There are several main types of water regimes: stagnant (permafrost), flushing, periodically flushing, non-flushing and effusion.
The stagnant (permafrost) type is characteristic of the tundra soils, where permafrost serves as an aquiclude. The soil thawed in summer is saturated with moisture for most of the growing season.
The leaching type is characterized by annual wetting of the entire soil layer to groundwater by atmospheric precipitation. This type of water regime is characteristic of the soils of the taiga-forest zone, humid subtropics and tropics, where more precipitation falls than moisture evaporates from the soil.
Periodically, the leaching type is inherent in the soils of the forest-steppe zone and is characterized by leaching of the soil to groundwater in years when the amount of precipitation exceeds evaporation.
The non-leachable type is typical for chernozems, chestnut, brown soils and gray soils, where evaporation exceeds the amount of atmospheric precipitation. Soils and bedrocks are never washed down to groundwater. Between the upper wetted layer and the boundary of the capillary border of groundwater there is a "dead" horizon with constant moisture content close to wilting moisture
The effusion type occurs in arid regions, where evaporation is much higher than the amount of precipitation. The lack of moisture is replenished by groundwater. If the groundwater is mineralized, then soil salinization occurs.
Examples of water regulation
A set of measures to regulate the water regime of soils is carried out to eliminate unfavorable conditions for the water supply of plants. It is developed taking into account specific soil and climatic conditions.
Swamp soils require drainage measures by means of open or closed drainage. Mineral hydromorphic (waterlogged) soils, in which there is a prolonged stagnation of water, which impedes or excludes the growth and development of agricultural crops, are also subject to drainage.
In conditions of insufficient moisture, various measures are used to accumulate, preserve and efficiently use moisture in the soil. An effective way of moisture accumulation is the retention of snow and melt water.
The main way to improve the water regime in arid zones is irrigation. Along with regular irrigation by surface, subsoil methods and sprinkling, one-time estuary and flood irrigation, as well as water-charging irrigation, are of great importance.
Physical properties of soils
Common physical properties include soil density, solid density, and porosity.
Soil density is the mass per unit volume of dry soil, taken in natural composition. Expressed in g / cm3.
The density of the solid phase of the soil is the ratio of the mass of its solid phase to the mass of water in the same volume at 4 ° C.
Porosity is the total volume of all pores between the particles of the solid phase of the soil. It is expressed as a percentage of the total soil volume. For mineral soils, the range of porosity indices is 25-80%.
Modern forms of soil degradation.
Degradation of land soils, sustainable deterioration of soil properties as an element of the ecological system, as well as a decrease in its fertility and economic value as a result of the influence of natural or anthropogenic factors.
І ... Classification and general patterns of soil distribution
1. The first soil classification developed by V.V. Dokuchaev was called:
geographic, biological, ecological, genetic *, physical,
2. The main taxonomic unit of modern soil classification is:
class, subclass, type *, subtype, genus
3. The concept of "soil nomenclature" reflects: number on the soil map, conventional soil sign, full name of soil *, soil score, soil fertility
In the general scheme of land classification, categories are distinguished:
The law on horizontal soil zoning was developed by:
V.V. Dokuchaev *, B.B. Polynov, D.I. Mendeleev, N.M. Sibirtsev, Ya.N. Afanasiev
The law on vertical zoning of soils was developed by:
V.V. Dokuchaev *, B.B., Polynov, D.I. Mendeleev, N.M. Sibirtsev, Ya.N. Afanasiev
Soil cover structure and soil structure:
the same in the plains, the same in the same natural zone, the same in the same soil type, different concepts *
On the flat land area of the land, there are soil and climatic zones:
9. Low ECO have soils
1) red-yellow 2) brunzems 3) burozems 4) chernozems
10. Measures to promote the expansion of arable land in the temperate zone:
irrigation, drainage *, crop-technical measures *, agrochemical *, anti-erosion *
11. A group of soils developing in the same type of conjugate biological, climatic, hydrological conditions and characterized by a vivid manifestation of the main process of soil formation, with a possible combination with other processes, is called a series, type, species, genus, variety, class
12. The influence of local conditions (chemism and regime of groundwater, composition of parent rocks) on carbonate content, ferruginization, relict characters and other qualitative genetic characteristics of soils, reflects the taxonomic unit
row, type, species, genus, variety, class
13. According to the granulometric composition, such a taxonomic unit is distinguished as
row, type, species, genus, variety, category
14. Description of soils in order to establish a set of characteristics by which it can be attributed to a particular taxonomic level is called
classification, diagnosis, morphology, taxonomy
15. On the first scheme of the soil zones of the Northern Hemisphere compiled by Dokuchaev, ...
16. The fallout of individual soil zones in the mountains is called
interference, inversion, migration, stratification
17.For plain territories, it is customary to divide the soil belts first into
18.for mountainous areas, the division of soil areas is first adopted into
provinces, zones, counties, districts
19. Soil-bioclimatic zones of the globe are first divided into
20. The largest unit of soil zoning is
regions, provinces, zones, counties, districts, belts
21. Soil-bioclimatic zones stand out on the globe
three five seven nine thirteen
22. The main principle of distinguishing soil-bioclimatic zones is
set of soil types, the sum of active temperatures, moisture coefficient
23. Based on the similarity of moisture conditions and continentality, taxonomic units such as
regions, provinces, zones, counties, districts
24. The area of distribution of the zonal soil type and associated intrazonal soils is called
region, province, zone, district, district
25. The basic units of soil-geographical zoning in the mountains are
regions, provinces, zones, counties, districts
26. The largest in area is the soil-bioclimatic zone
polar, boreal, subboreal, subtropical, tropical
27. The smallest in area is the soil-bioclimatic zone
polar, boreal, subboreal, subtropical, tropical
28. In the subtropical zone, the largest area is occupied by soils
humid subtropical forests, xerophytic forests and shrubs, semi-deserts and deserts
29. In the zone of deserts and semi-deserts of the subtropical zone, soils dominate
primitive and underdeveloped, gray soils, takyrs, salt marshes, gray-brown
30. The smallest number of soil-bioclimatic regions is distinguished in the
polar, boreal, subboreal, subtropical, tropical
31. Arrange these taxa of soil-geographic regionalization on the plains from large to smallest in the order of the hierarchy
32. Genesis of parent rocks characterizes
1) genus 2) grade 3) type 4) type
33. Arrange these taxa in the order of the hierarchy
|
variety |
34. Granulometric composition of parent rocks characterizes
1) genus 2) category 3) type 4) variety
35. The name of soils in accordance with their properties is called
1) taxonomy 2) diagnostics 3) nomenclature 4) classification
36. Place these soils of Eurasia from north to south according to the distribution areas
39. Lessivage is especially characteristic of soils
1) brown forest 2) podzolic 3) gray forest 4) gray-brown
40. Arrange these taxa of soil-geographic zoning in mountainous regions from large to small in the order of the hierarchy
Correct answers are marked with +.
1. Granulometric composition is the relative content in the soil:
a) particles of physical clay;
b) particles of physical sand;
c) mechanical elements; +
d) colloids;
e) silt particles.
2. Test. Physical sand includes particles with a diameter:
a) ‹0.01 mm;
3. "Physical clay" includes particles with a diameter:
a) ‹0.01 mm; +
4. Stony-gravel fraction is presented:
d) silica;
e) primary minerals.
5. The sand fraction is represented by:
a) quartz and feldspars; +
b) secondary clay minerals;
c) fragments of rocks and primary minerals;
d) silica;
e) primary minerals.
6. The dusty fraction is represented by:
a) quartz and feldspars;
b) secondary clay minerals;
c) fragments of rocks and primary minerals;
d) silica;
e) primary minerals. +
7. The muddy fraction is represented by:
a) quartz and feldspars;
b) secondary clay minerals; +
c) fragments of rocks and primary minerals;
d) silica;
e) primary minerals.
Test - 8. Lack of moisture capacity is characterized by:
b) sand fraction;
c) dusty fraction;
d) sludge fraction;
e) physical sand.
9. Failure water permeability is characterized by:
a) stony-gravel fraction; +
b) sand fraction;
c) dusty fraction;
d) sludge fraction;
e) physical sand.
10. High capillarity is characterized by:
a) stony-gravel fraction;
b) sand fraction;
c) dusty fraction;
d) sludge fraction; +
e) physical sand.
11. Coarse sand - these are mechanical elements of size:
b) 0.5-025 mm;
c) 0.25-0.05 mm;
d) 0.05-0.01 mm;
e) 0.01-0.005 mm.
11. Medium sand - these are mechanical elements of the size:
b) 0.5-025 mm; +
c) 0.25-0.05 mm;
d) 0.05-0.01 mm;
e) 0.01-0.005 mm.
12. Fine sand - these are mechanical elements of size:
b) 0.5-025 mm;
c) 0.25-0.05 mm; +
d) 0.05-0.01 mm;
e) 0.01-0.005 mm.
13. Test. Coarse dust - these are mechanical elements of size:
a) 0.005-0.001 mm;
b) 0.5-025 mm;
c) 0.25-0.05 mm;
d) 0.05-0.01 mm; +
e) 0.01-0.005 mm.
14. Medium dust - these are mechanical elements of size:
a) 0.005-0.001 mm;
b) 0.5-025 mm;
c) 0.25-0.05 mm;
d) 0.05-0.01 mm;
e) 0.01-0.005 mm. +
15. Fine dust - these are mechanical elements of size:
a) 0.005-0.001 mm; +
b) 0.0005-0.0001 mm;
c) ‹0.0001 mm;
d) 0.001-0.0005 mm;
e) 0.01-0.005 mm.
16. Sludge rough is mechanical elements of size:
a) 0.005-0.001 mm;
b) 0.0005-0.0001 mm;
c) ‹0.0001 mm;
d) 0.001-0.0005 mm; +
e) 0.01-0.005 mm.
17. Sludge thin is mechanical elements of size:
a) 0.005-0.001 mm;
b) 0.0005-0.0001 mm; +
c) ‹0.0001 mm;
d) 0.001-0.0005 mm;
e) 0.01-0.005 mm.
18. Granulometric composition of steppe soil containing 58% of physical clay particles:
a) light loamy;
b) light clay;
c) medium loamy;
d) medium clay
e) heavy loamy. +
19. Tests. Granulometric composition of podzolic soil type, containing 46% of physical clay particles in the illuvial horizon:
a) light loamy;
b) light clay;
c) medium loamy;
d) medium clay;
e) heavy loamy. +
20. Granulometric composition of meadow solonetz containing 22% of physical clay particles in the suprasolonets horizon:
a) light loamy;
b) light clay;
c) medium loamy; +
d) medium clay
e) heavy loamy.
Transcript
1 TESTS ON SOILS GENERAL ISSUES 1. Who is the founder of world soil science: - V.V. Dokuchaev; - P.A. Kostychev; - K.K. Gedroyc; - Dushafour; 2. When were the first attempts to generalize knowledge about soil were made: - in the antique period; - in the Middle Ages; - at the end of the 19th century; 3. from what year has soil science established itself as an independent science:; ; ; 4. Which of the soil scientists substantiated the law of horizontal and vertical zoning of soils: - N.М. Sibirtsev; - V.R. Williams; - P.S. Kossovich; 5. Specify the swelling clay minerals: - montmorillonite; - kaolinite; - hydromica; 6. Specify non-swelling clay minerals: - montmorillonite; - kaolinite; - hydromica; 7. Arrange in the order of the sequence of the stages of soil formation: 3 - mature soil; 2- accelerated development; 1- the beginning of soil formation; 4- stage of aging;
2? 8. In what order of importance can the types of weathering be ranked: 3 - chemical; 1- physical; 2- biological; 9. Who is the discoverer of the law of vertical and horizontal soil zoning (Kossovich) 10. Correlate the element and its content in the lithosphere: O 27.6 Si Si 47.2 O Al 8.8 Al 10. Correlate the groups of climates and the corresponding sums of active temperatures : - cold (polar) С - cold temperate (boreal) more than С - warm temperate (subboreal) С - warm (subtropical) less С - hot (tropical) С
3 MORPHOLOGICAL SIGNS OF SOILS 1. Arrange the soil horizons in sequence from the upper horizons to the lower: - B 1; - IN 2 ; - AB; - A groin; - the sun; - WITH; 2. Which soil horizon is called eluvial: - mountains A; - mountains B; - mountains C; 3. Which soil horizon is called illuvial: - mountains A; - mountains B; - mountains C; 4. Which soil horizon is called the parent rock: - mountains A; - mountains B; - mountains C; 5. Neoplasms are: - a set of aggregates, the formation of which is associated with the process of soil formation; - a set of aggregates, the formation of which is not associated with the process of soil formation; - external expression of soil density and porosity;
4 6 Inclusions are: - a set of aggregates, the formation of which is associated with the process of soil formation; - a set of aggregates, the formation of which is not associated with the process of soil formation; - external expression of soil density and porosity; 7. What color of soils is caused by humic substances (black) 8. What color is given to soils by compounds of iron oxides (brown) 9. What color is given to soils by ferrous oxide (black) 10. What causes white and whitish color of soils: - humus; - iron compounds; - silicic acid, carbonic lime; - gypsum, readily soluble salts; 11. Determine the type of structure: structural jointing is evenly developed along three mutually perpendicular axes: - cuboid; - prismatic; - plate-like; 12. Determine the type of structure: structural jointing is developed mainly along the vertical axis: - cuboid; - prismatic; - plate-like; 13. Determine the type of structure: structural partings are developed mainly along two horizontal axes and are shortened in the vertical direction:
5 - cuboid; - prismatic; - plate-like; 14. In terms of form, chemical neoplasms are subdivided into: - efflorescence and bloom; - crusts and smears; - streaks, tubules, nodules; - caprolites; - dendrites 15. List the main morphological features of soils: - the shape of the elements - the nature of their boundaries - color at a certain moisture content - particle size distribution - addition - the nature of the surface - density and hardness
6 PHYSICAL AND PHYSICOMECHANICAL PROPERTIES 1. A set of mechanical elements less than 0.01 mm in size is: - physical clay; - physical sand; - silt; - fine earth; 2. A set of mechanical elements larger than 0.01 mm is: - physical clay; - physical sand; - silt; - fine earth; 3. A set of mechanical elements less than 0.001 mm in size is: - physical clay; - physical sand; - silt; - fine earth; 4. What size of soil aggregates corresponds to the sand fraction: - 0.05-0.001 mm; - 1.0-0.05 mm; -< 0,0001 мм; - < 0,001 мм; мм; 5. Соотнесите размер элементов к фракции; гравий 3-1 0,05-0,001мм
7 sand, 0-0.05mm dust< 0,0001мм ил <0.001 < 0,001мм коллоиды < мм 6. Соотнесите показатели плотности почвы с их характеристикой: - излишне вспушена 1,10-1,25 - отличная < 1,0 - хорошая 1,0-1,10 - удовлетворительная 1,25-1,35 - неудовлетворительная < почва переуплотнена < Какая почва считается оструктуренной: - К с >1; - K s - 1; - C< 0,3; 8. Какая почва считается слабооструктуренной: - К с >1; - K s - 1; - C< 0,3; 9. Какая почва считается глыбистой, бесструктурной: - К с >1; - K s - 1; - C< 0,3; 10. Какой размер почвенных агрегатов соответствует фракции пыли: - 0,05-0,001 мм; - 1,0-0,05 мм; - < 0,0001 мм; - < 0,001 мм; мм; 11. Какой размер почвенных агрегатов соответствует фракции ила:
8 - 0.05-0.001 mm; - 1.0-0.05 mm; -< 0,0001 мм; - < 0,001 мм; мм; 12. Какой размер почвенных агрегатов соответствует коллоидам: - 0,05-0,001 мм; - 1,0-0,05 мм; - < 0,0001 мм; - < 0,001 мм; мм; 13. Какой размер агрегатов в почве называют агрономически ценной структурой: - от 0,25 до 10 мм; - более 10мм и менее 0,25мм; - от 7 мм до 10 мм; 14. Какой размер агрегатов в почве называют агрономически не ценной структурой: - от 0,25 до 10 мм; - более 10мм и менее 0,25мм; - от 7 мм до 10 мм; 15. Что такое плотность почвы: - отношение массы абсолютно сухой почвы, не нарушенного сложения, к объему; - отношение массы твердой фазы к массе воды при 4 0 С; - суммарный объем всех пор в почве, выраженный в процентах; 16. Что такое плотность твердой фазы почвы: - отношение массы абсолютно сухой почвы, не нарушенного сложения, к объему; - отношение массы твердой фазы к массе воды при 4 0 С; - суммарный объем всех пор в почве, выраженный в процентах;
9 17. What is soil porosity: - the ratio of the mass of absolutely dry soil, not disturbed in composition, to the volume; - the ratio of the mass of the solid phase to the mass of water at 4 0 С; - the total volume of all pores in the soil, expressed as a percentage; 18. Plasticity is: - the ability of the soil to change its shape under the influence of any external force without breaking the continuity; - property of soil to stick to other bodies; - an increase in the volume of the soil when moistened; - reduction in the volume of soil when drying out; - the ability to resist external forces tending to separate soil aggregates; 19. Stickiness is: - the ability of the soil to change its shape under the influence of any external force without breaking the continuity; - property of soil to stick to other bodies; - an increase in the volume of the soil when moistened; - reduction in the volume of soil when drying out; - the ability to resist external forces tending to separate soil aggregates; 20. Swelling is: - the ability of the soil to change its shape under the influence of any external force without breaking the continuity; - property of soil to stick to other bodies; - an increase in the volume of the soil when moistened; - reduction in the volume of soil when drying out; - the ability to resist external forces tending to separate soil aggregates; 21. Shrinkage is: - the ability of the soil to change its shape under the influence of any external force without breaking the continuity; - property of soil to stick to other bodies; - an increase in the volume of the soil when moistened; - reduction in the volume of soil when drying out;
10 - the ability to resist external forces trying to separate soil aggregates; 22. Connectivity is: - the ability of the soil to change its shape under the influence of any external force without breaking the continuity; - property of soil to stick to other bodies; - an increase in the volume of the soil when moistened; - reduction in the volume of soil when drying out; - the ability to resist external forces tending to separate soil aggregates; 23. A set of mechanical elements less than 0.01 mm in size is (silt) 24. A set of mechanical elements over 0.01 mm in size is (dust) 25. A set of mechanical elements less than 0.001 mm in size is (colluvium) 26. A set of mechanical elements over 1 mm is (gravel) 27. A set of mechanical elements less than 1 mm in size is (sand) 28. A set of aggregates of various sizes, shapes and sizes is (soil structure) 29. The ability of soil to disintegrate into aggregates of various sizes, shapes and sizes is (structure soil)
11 WATER AND AIR PROPERTIES OF SOIL 1. What reserves of productive moisture in the 0-20 cm layer are considered good: -< 40мм; мм; - >20 mm; 2. What reserves of productive moisture in the 0-20 cm layer are considered satisfactory: -< 40мм; мм; - >20 mm; 3. What reserves of productive moisture in the 0-20 cm layer are considered unsatisfactory: -< 40мм; мм; - >20 mm; 4. What reserves of productive moisture in the cm layer are considered very good: -> 160 mm; mm; mm; mm; -< 60мм; 5. Какие запасы продуктивной влаги в слое см считаются хорошими: - >160 mm;
12 mm; mm; mm; -< 60мм; 6. Какие запасы продуктивной влаги в слое см считаются удовлетворительными: - >160 mm; mm; mm; mm; -< 60мм; 7. Какие запасы продуктивной влаги в слое см считаются плохими: - >160 mm; mm; mm; mm; -< 60мм; 8. Какие запасы продуктивной влаги в слое см считаются очень плохими: - >160 mm; mm; mm; mm; -< 60мм; 9. Какая водопроницаемость считается провальной: - >1000 mm / hour; mm / hour; mm / hour; mm / hour; 10. What water permeability is considered excessively high: -> 1000 mm / h;
13 mm / hour; mm / hour; mm / hour; 11. What water permeability is considered the best: mm / hour; mm / hour; mm / hour; mm / hour; 12. What water permeability is considered satisfactory: mm / hour; mm / hour; mm / hour; -< 30мм/час; 13. Какая водопроницаемость считается неудовлетворительной: мм/час; мм/час; мм/час; - < 30мм/час; 14. Какая влага доступна растениям: - кристаллическая, гигроскопическая; - рыхлосвязанная; - свободная; 15. Какая влага не доступна растениям: - кристаллическая, гигроскопическая; - рыхлосвязанная; - свободная; 16. Какая влага частично доступна растениям: - кристаллическая, гигроскопическая; - рыхлосвязанная;
14 - free; 17. Water-holding capacity is: - the ability of the soil to retain water; - the ability of the soil to absorb and transmit water; - the ability of the soil to raise moisture through the capillaries; 18. Water permeability is: - the ability of the soil to retain water; - the ability of the soil to absorb and transmit water; - the ability of the soil to raise moisture through the capillaries; 19. Water-lifting capacity is: - the ability of the soil to retain water; - the ability of the soil to absorb and transmit water; - the ability of the soil to raise moisture through the capillaries; 20. Full moisture capacity is: - the largest amount of water that the soil can accommodate; - the greatest amount of moisture that the soil can hold in its capillaries when all gravitational moisture is outflowing; - the greatest amount of water that the soil can retain in its capillaries in the presence of a capillary-supported system. 21. Field moisture capacity is: - the greatest amount of water that the soil can accommodate; - the greatest amount of moisture that the soil can hold in its capillaries when all gravitational moisture is outflowing; - the greatest amount of water that the soil can retain in its capillaries in the presence of a capillary-supported system. 22. Capillary moisture capacity is:
15 - the largest amount of water that the soil can accommodate; - the greatest amount of moisture that the soil can hold in its capillaries when all gravitational moisture is outflowing; - the greatest amount of water that the soil can retain in its capillaries in the presence of a capillary-supported system. 23. The flushing type of water regime is formed: - at KU>< 1 и промачивании только пахотного и подпахотного горизонтов; - при КУ < 0,4 в полупустынях и пустынях при близком залегании грунтовых вод; - на орошаемых участках; 24. Не промывной тип водного режима формируется: - при КУ >1 and wetting the moisture of precipitation to groundwater; - at KU< 1 и промачивании только пахотного и подпахотного горизонтов; - при КУ < 0,4 в полупустынях и пустынях при близком залегании грунтовых вод; - на орошаемых участках; 25. Выпотной тип водного режима формируется: - при КУ >1 and wetting the moisture of precipitation to groundwater; - at KU< 1 и промачивании только пахотного и подпахотного горизонтов; - при КУ < 0,4 в полупустынях и пустынях при близком залегании грунтовых вод; - на орошаемых участках; 26. Ирригационный тип водного режима формируется: - при КУ >1 and wetting the moisture of precipitation to groundwater;
16 - at KU< 1 и промачивании только пахотного и подпахотного горизонтов; - при КУ < 0,4 в полупустынях и пустынях при близком залегании грунтовых вод; - на орошаемых участках; 27. Воздухопроницаемость это: - способность почвы пропускать через себя воздух; - содержание воздуха в почве в %; - обмен воздухом между почвой и атмосферой; - перемещение газов в соответствии с их парциальным давлением; 28. Воздухоемкость это: - способность почвы пропускать через себя воздух; - содержание воздуха в почве в %; - обмен воздухом между почвой и атмосферой; - перемещение газов в соответствии с их парциальным давлением; 29. Аэрация это: - способность почвы пропускать через себя воздух; - содержание воздуха в почве в %; - обмен воздухом между почвой и атмосферой; - перемещение газов в соответствии с их парциальным давлением; 30. Диффузия это: - способность почвы пропускать через себя воздух; - содержание воздуха в почве в %; - обмен воздухом между почвой и атмосферой; - перемещение газов в соответствии с их парциальным давлением; 31 Доступна ли растениям влага в составе кристаллической структуры минералов (нет)
17 32. Is the moisture sorbed on the surface of solid particles accessible to plants (yes) ORGANIC SOIL AND PROPERTIES 1. What are the names of dark humic acids (humic) 2. What are the names of yellow humic acids (fulvate) 3. The ability of the soil as a porous body to retain particles larger than the pore system is called (mechanical) absorption capacity. 4. The ability of the solid phase of the soil to adsorb molecules of dissolved substances and gases on its surface is called (molecular absorption) absorption capacity. 5. The ability of the soil to form sparingly soluble salts from readily soluble ones is called the (chemical) absorption capacity. 6. The ability of soil microorganisms to absorb and retain plant nutrients for a certain time is called the (biological) absorption capacity. 7. What is the name of the organic matter that has lost its anatomical structure (humus) 8. What is the name of the high-molecular colloidal organic matter of phenolic nature (humic acids) 9. How can the fertility of salt licks be increased: - Adding gypsum, limestone-shell rock; - soil washing; - introduction of limestone;
18 10. How can the fertility of the salt marshes be increased: - the introduction of gypsum, limestone-shell rock; - soil washing; - introduction of limestone; 11. How can you increase the fertility of acidic soils: - the introduction of gypsum, limestone-shell rock; - soil washing; - introduction of limestone; 12. What soil has more than 20% exchangeable sodium in the ALC composition 13. What kind of rock is applied to acidic soils to increase fertility and reduce acidity 14. What kind of rock is applied to typical salt licks to structure them and reduce the strong alkaline reaction of the environment 15. What kind of soils washed from salts to increase their fertility 16. What is called humus: - litter entering the soil after the plants die off; - high molecular weight colloidal organic matter of phenolic nature; - organic matter that has lost its anatomical structure; - a set of soil microorganisms; 17. What is called fresh litter: - litter entering the soil after the plants die off; - high molecular weight colloidal organic matter of phenolic nature; - organic matter that has lost its anatomical structure; - a set of soil microorganisms; 18. What is called detritus: - litter entering the soil after the plants die off; - high molecular weight colloidal organic matter of phenolic nature; - organic matter that has lost its anatomical structure; - a set of soil microorganisms;
19 19. What is a part of humus: - humic acids, fulvic acids, humin; - humic acids, root and plant litter; - semi-decomposed organic compounds; 20. What is the sum of exchangeable cations: - the sum of all cations in the PPC, except for hydrogen and aluminum; - the sum of hydrogen and aluminum; - the sum of exchangeable bases plus hydrolytic acidity; 21. What is the absorption capacity: - the sum of all cations in the AUC, except for hydrogen and aluminum; - the sum of hydrogen and aluminum; - the sum of exchangeable bases plus hydrolytic acidity; 22. What is hydrolytic acidity: - the sum of all cations in the AUC, except for hydrogen and aluminum; - the sum of hydrogen and aluminum; - the sum of exchangeable bases plus hydrolytic acidity; 23. What acidity is called actual: - determined by the number of hydrogen protons in the soil solution; - determined by the amount of hydrogen and aluminum in the PPK; - determined when the soil is exposed to hydrolytically neutral salts; 24. What acidity is called potential: - determined by the number of hydrogen protons in the soil solution; - determined by the amount of hydrogen and aluminum in the PPK; - determined when the soil is exposed to hydrolytically neutral salts; 25. What acidity is called exchangeable: - determined by the number of hydrogen protons in the soil solution; - determined by the amount of hydrogen and aluminum in the PPK; - determined when the soil is exposed to hydrolytically neutral salts; 26. Actual alkalinity is determined by: - the content of hydrolytically alkaline salts in the soil solution; - the content of exchangeable sodium; - the content of clay minerals; 27. Potential alkalinity is determined by: - the content of hydrolytically alkaline salts in the soil solution;
20 - the content of exchangeable sodium; - the content of clay minerals; 30. What is the main source of energy in the soil (organic matter) 31. What property of the soil is the main 32. who is the founder of world soil science (Dokuchaev) SOIL FERTILITY 1. What is the name of the soil's ability to satisfy the needs of plants for mineral nutrition, water, air, heat etc. 2. What is called water erosion of soils: - destruction and removal of soil under the influence of water flows; - destruction and removal of soils under the influence of wind; - destruction and removal of soils under the influence of wind and water; What is called soil deflation: - destruction and removal of soil under the influence of water flows; - destruction and removal of soils under the influence of wind; - destruction and removal of soils under the influence of wind and water; 4. What is a land registry: - a set of reliable and necessary information about the natural, economic and legal status lands; - the unification of soils into larger groups according to the common agronomic properties, the proximity of ecological conditions, the level of fertility; - grouping of lands for the purpose of their suitability for agricultural use; - high-quality assessment of land; 5. What is an agro-industrial grouping: - a set of reliable and necessary information about the natural, economic and legal status of lands; - the unification of soils into larger groups according to the common agronomic properties, the proximity of ecological conditions, the level of fertility; - grouping of lands for the purpose of their suitability for agricultural use; - high-quality assessment of land;
21 6. What is land classification: - a set of reliable and necessary information about the natural, economic and legal status of land; - the unification of soils into larger groups according to the common agronomic properties, the proximity of ecological conditions, the level of fertility; - grouping of lands for the purpose of their suitability for agricultural use; - high-quality assessment of land; 7. What is soil appraisal: - a set of reliable and necessary information about the natural, economic and legal status of lands; - the unification of soils into larger groups according to the common agronomic properties, the proximity of ecological conditions, the level of fertility; - grouping of lands for the purpose of their suitability for agricultural use; - high-quality assessment of land; 8. Potential soil fertility is manifested: - with an optimal combination of meteorological conditions during the growing season of the crop; - in specific climatic conditions; - in relation to a particular culture; - the effectiveness of complex measures for growing, harvesting, transporting and storing products; 9. Effective soil fertility is manifested: - with an optimal combination of meteorological conditions during the growing season of the crop; - in specific climatic conditions; - in relation to a particular culture; - the effectiveness of complex measures for growing, harvesting, transporting and storing products; 10. Relative soil fertility is manifested: - with an optimal combination of meteorological conditions during the growing season of the crop; - in specific climatic conditions; - in relation to a particular culture; - the effectiveness of complex measures for growing, harvesting, transporting and storing products;
22 11. Economic soil fertility is manifested: - with an optimal combination of meteorological conditions during the growing season of the crop; - in specific climatic conditions; - in relation to a particular culture; - the effectiveness of complex measures for growing, harvesting, transporting and storing products; 12. What kind of rock is applied to acidic soils to increase fertility and reduce acidity 14. What kind of rock is applied to typical salt licks to structure them and reduce the strong alkaline reaction of the environment 16. What soils are washed from salts to increase their fertility 17. How can you increase fertility of salt licks: - introduction of gypsum, limestone-shell rock; - soil washing; - introduction of limestone; 18. In what way can the fertility of the salt marshes be increased: - the introduction of gypsum, limestone-shell rock; - soil washing; - introduction of limestone; 19. What is the name of soil erosion caused by the action of water flows (20. What is the name of soil erosion caused by the action of wind (aeolian) 21. What is the name of the qualitative assessment of soils .. (appraisal) 22. Solonets soils are: - soils with a high content (more than 20 % of the sum of exchangeable bases) exchangeable sodium; - soils with a salt content of more than 1%; - soils with a solodized horizon; 23. Salt marshes are: - soils with a high content (more than 20% of the sum of exchangeable bases) of exchangeable sodium; - soils with salt content of more than 1%; - soils with a solodized horizon; 24. Solod is:
23 - soils with a high content (more than 20% of the sum of exchangeable bases) of exchangeable sodium; - soils with a salt content of more than 1%; - soils with a solodized horizon;
24 GEOGRAPHY OF SOILS 1. What the law of vertical and horizontal zoning of soils says: - the change in the soil cover is the same from south to north and from the foot of the mountain to its top; - the change in the soil cover is the same from north to south and from the foot of the mountain to its top; - the change in the soil cover is the same from south to north and from the top of the mountain to its foot; 2. What soil contains more than 1% of water-soluble salts (salt marsh) 3. What are the names of waterlogged soils with primary waterlogging 4. What soils dominate in the Central Ciscaucasia (chernozem) 5. What soils dominate in the east of the Stavropol Territory (chernozem) 6. What soils dominate in the central part of the Stavropol Territory along the width of the Armavir corridor 7. What is the main taxonomic unit in the classification of soils (type) 8. What soil has more than 20% exchangeable sodium in the AUC (solonetz) 9. What soils develop under coniferous vegetation (10 What soils are common in the taiga-forest zone: - tundra gley, tundra podzolic; - podzolic, soddy-podzolic, bog-podzolic; - gray forest, brown forest; 11. What soils are common in the tundra zone: - tundra gley, tundra podzolic ; - podzolic, sod-podzolic, bog-podzolic; - gray forest, brown forest; 12. What soils are common in the forest zone: - tundra gley high, tundra podzolic;
25 - podzolic, sod-podzolic, bog-podzolic; - gray forest, brown forest; 13. What soils are common in the steppe zone: - gray forest; - chernozems, chestnut; - red soils, yellow soils; 14. In what conditions do southern and ordinary chernozems develop: - in the steppe; - in the forest-steppe; - in a forest; - in the conditions of the taiga; Under what conditions leached and podzolized chernozems develop: - in the steppe; - in the forest-steppe; - in a forest; - in the conditions of the taiga; In what conditions do gray forest soils develop: - in the steppe; - in the forest-steppe; - in a forest; - in the conditions of the taiga; Under what conditions do podzols develop: - in the steppe; - in the forest-steppe; - in a forest; - in the conditions of the taiga;
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1... V.V. Dokuchaev - the founder of soil science
Soil science - the science of soils, their formation, structure, composition and sv-wah; about the patterns of their geographic distribution; about the processes of interconnection with the external Wed, determining the formation and development of the most important Holy Island of soils - fertility; about the ways of rational use of soils in agriculture and about the changed soil cover in agricultural conditions. Soil science as a scientific discipline took shape in our country at the end of the 19th century thanks to the works of the outstanding Russian scientist V.V.Dokuchaev. The first scientific definition of soil was given by VV Dokuchaev: “soil should be called. "Daytime" or outer horizons of rocks, naturally altered by the combined effect of water and air on various kinds of organisms, living and dead. " He established that all the soil on the earth's surface is an image through "an extremely complex interaction of the local climate, grows and animal organisms, the composition and structure of the parent rocks, the terrain and, the age of the country." These ideas of V.V. Dokuchaev received further development in the concept of soil as a biomineral dynamic system in constant material and energetic interaction with the external medium and partially closed through the biological cycle.
2. Has arisen. and developed soil
Parent rocks have properties: water and air permeability; a certain amount of water, depending on the ability of the rock to absorb (on the granulometric composition); a certain amount of nutrients (rudiments of fertility); have N. The rocks are turned into soil on the basis of a small biological cycle in-in, the cat has developed against the background of a large geological cycle. BGK goes constantly, for a long time. geological eras. Some of the weathered products move from the land to the hydrosphere, and some of the rocks end up on land. Some of the weathering products are lost. MBK started with life. Living organisms settle on the surface of the rocks, they use substances from the rock, and from the air CO2, O 2, E of the sun and the image of organic matter. After the organisms die off, organic residues enter the soil and release soil organic matter and salt miner, which is used by a new generation of living organisms. As a result of MBC: 1. There is also accumulated images of organic matter, from which the image is humus. 2. In the upper horizon, accumulating. the elements are powered. The upper part of the rock is divided into layers and genetic horizons. Any soil consists of horizons, but in each soil they are different in characteristics and sv-you. Genetic horizons have letter designations. A 0 is the organogenic horizon. And 1 - humus accumulative. And 2 is eluvial. or podzolic. B - illuvial - in soils where observation. washout; transitional - in soils where it is not moved from top to bottom. C is the parent breed. D - underlying rock. If the soil is waterlogged, then section G is the gley horizon. Soil forming. process.- a set of phenomena is transformed, moved. in-in and E in the soil. thicker. Processes: 1. Transformed miner in the process weathered. 2. Accumulated organ residues and their transformations. 3. Reciprocity. Miner. and organic in-in with the organo-miner is formed. products. 4. Accumulated power supply elements. at the top of the profile. 5. Moved. products of soil formation, and also moisture in the profile of the forming soils. Stages in developed soil ... 1. The beginning is soil-formed. - the beginning of the MBC - its volume is small, the processes of transfer in-in are weakly expressed - the soil profile is not yet formed. 2. Stage developed. soil. The volume of MBC, due to the activities of higher plants. Observation. differentiation of sv-in and soil principles; formir def. types of soils, is accumulated. humus. The profile is fully formed. 3. Stage of mature soil functioning. Stabilizer biological, geological, chemical processes and characteristics of soils. If happens. changed. factors of soil formation, the soil also changes.
3. Soil-forming factors and their role in the transformation of parent rock into soil .
Breed from a cat and a cat. image. soil, called. soil-forming ... it important factor soil formation, because the soil inherits the characteristics of the parent rocks. Inherited properties : 1. Granulometric. composition of the breed... From granulometric composition depends on water permeability, moisture capacity and porosity of rock and soil. In the soil, these Holy Islands determine the water, air and thermal conditions. 2. Mineralogical composition. 3. Chemical composition... More fertile soils are formed on carbonate rocks. On acidic carbonate-free rocks of glacial and glacial origin, acidic soils with a low level of fertility are formed. Soils can form on any rocks if they come to the surface. Metamorphic and igneous rocks come to the surface in the mountains. The plains on the surface are composed of loose, sedimentary rocks, formed during the Quaternary period. For the Quaternary deposits, they are characterized by their rapid turnover in granulometric terms. composition, especially in our area.
4. Soil microorganisms and conditions of their life
It is associated with the accumulation and formation of organic matter. soil fertility, cat. yavl. main sv-vom and distinguishes the soil from the rock. The source of organic matter is yavl. microorganisms, higher plants, animals; and on arable land the remains of agricultural crops and organic. fertilizers. The activity of microorganisms ... Microorganisms are taken into account in the destroyed part of the soil miner, in the destroyed organic. combined in the synthesis of new organic. connected. Bacteria, fungi, algae, actinomycetes live in the soil. Microorgan has a high reproduction rate and, after dying off, replenish organic reserves. in-va. Synthesized algae. organic due to photosynthesis. bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes are active destroyers of organic matter. residues, and t / f miner in-in. The microorgan is taken into account in the synthesis of humus, in the synthesis of biological active substances in the soil and in the mineralization of organic matter. in-in (decomposition of organic matter to simple salts) due to which the soil is enriched with nutrients in the available f-me. Living conditions microorgan . 1. According to the method of nutrition of microorganisms, there are: heterotrophic (ready-made organic substances), autotrophs (synthesizing organic substances themselves). 2. Optimal t- for a developed microorgan. -25-30. 3. Optimum humidity 60-68% of the PV (full moisture capacity) of soils. 4. R-tion of the environment: in acid cf. at pH = 4-5 units. mushrooms multiply more actively. Most of the bacteria nitrogen, ammonium, nitro-fixing agents are factors of nodule bacteria = pH -6.5 - 7.2 units. 5. With respect to O 2 secretion of aerobic. and anaerobic. microorganisms. Aerobes live with the access of free O 2. the process is decomposed organic. in-va goes quickly and they break up with formed 45% C, 42% O 2, 6.5% H, 5% ash elements, 1.5% N. When the image of H 2 O and CO 2 is combined. When combined with cations, the image is simple salts: carbonates, phosphates and other nutrients. In aerobics. conv. there is a process of humification, but optimal humidity is needed for the processes of humification and mineralization. walked the same way. Anaerobic Condition. are created with a lack of free O 2 - oxidation processes are suppressed, organic decomposition. the residue is slow and the form of under-oxidized foods, many of which. toxic to plants: methane, H 2 S. Origin. accumulated var. types of decomposed residues - peat.
5. Soil. humus . Composition
In his composition, 2 large pieces : 1) non-specific part(non-humus substances). Composition from the components of the original organic residues (proteins, carbohydrates) and inter-products (aminoc-you). 2) the specific part of the compound - 85-90% mixture is different in composition and high-molecular nitrogen-containing organic compounds, united by a common origin. In the composition of humic substances in the unit: group of HA, group of FA, humins. Sv-va GK: Sv-va humates: humates of monovalent cations (K, Na) are water-soluble; 2-shaft cations (Ca, Mg) are insoluble in water, settle in the soil; 3-shaft cat (Fe, Al) is an organo-miner complex with clay minerals, which are insoluble in water. Humates have an adhesive ability and are taken into account in the formed soil structure. Sv-va FC: capable of destroying soil. minerals (weathering); soluble in water, to-takh, alkalis; their derivatives are fulvates. Monoval kat fulvates are water-soluble; 2nd and 3rd shaft kat - partially soluble. The degree of solubility depends on the metal saturation of the complex. FA and fulvates are light in color. Accumulated FA and their derivatives are characteristic for podzolic and soddy-podzolic soils ... Humins- non-extractable part of humus. They can give the soil a dark color. Humus formation scheme ... Everything is organic. residues that fall into the soil are decomposed by microorganisms and interm. decomposition products. Part of interm. products are lost, washed out. Part is used by heterotrophic microorgan. for life. Part of it undergoes mineralization (simple salts). Part of the account. in the process of humification. Humification is a complex process of polycondensation and polymerization of organic decomposition products. residues with the active participation of enzymes. F-ry formed by humus ... 1. The accumulated humus is affected water-air soil regime. In continuous ananaerobic condition. humus does not accumulate., grows residues without decomposition. and the image of peat. B will continue aerobic exercise. condition. humus has not accumulated. (increasing mineralization). The chemical composition is organic. leftovers or litter. 1) Coniferous litter. gives coarse humus - sour, because its decomposition occurs on the soil surface with the participation of fungi. The predominance of FC, there are a lot of semi-decomposed residues (tanning substances). Humus is mobile, not accumulating. 2) herbaceous litter is the best. The image is a fine humus with a predominance of HA. Decomposed id1t quickly. Neutral p-tion Wed, in it there are many bases, when decomposed, the image of humate is also released, the cat is insoluble and accumulates in the soil. 2. Granulometric composition of soil ... Most of the humus has accumulated. fine fractions of the soil, the cat is contained more in loamy soils. In clay soils, ananaerobic activity is partly created. conditions. In the sand. and sandy loam. mineralization occurs quickly in soils. 3. Soil-forming rocks ... The most valuable are carbonate rocks (loess, loess-like loams) - favorable. district Wed, high activity of microorganisms, more cations Ca, Mg. Significance in soil formation ... FC are taken into account in the weathered process. soil minerals - 1 floor of soil formations. 2nd floor - humos. in-va are taken into account in the formation. soil profile. The humus-accumulative horizon A1 of greater thickness is formed under the optimal conditions of humification - the steppe zone - HAs predominate. In soddy-podzolic soils, horizon A1 is light-colored — FA. 3rd floor - since humus appears in the rock, it becomes soil and fertility is inherent in it. Influence on soil fertility ... Fertility is the ability of the soil to meet the needs of plants. in the elements of food., water, air / Q and other ph-moats of life, necessary for growth and developed plants. and formed the harvest of agricultural crops. Humus islands contain in the central and peripheral. parts of the N molecule (2.5-5%) and ash elements (S, Ca, Mg). Humus to - you, especially HA, have a high absorption capacity in relation to cations. HA, forming organomineral. complexes, are taken into account in the images of the structure of the soil, and in them folded. Favorable. water-air mode and physical. Holy Island. Humus - the regulator of carbon dioxide in the soil - affects the yield. Optim contains 20% carbon dioxide. Humus serves as a source of E for many physical and chemical processes in the soil. Humus is a physiological source. active substances in the soil, cat. yavl. growth regulators and developed plant. Execute. sanitary protection f-tion in the soil. Promotes the decomposition of pesticides and their flushing.
6 . Humos to-you. In the composition of humic substances in the unit: group of HA, group of FA, humins. Sv-va GK: not soluble in water, in miner and organic to-takh; well soluble in alkalis. The color of HA and humates is dark. HA accumulates at the place formed. This is battery E and batteries - the most valuable part of humus. Sv-va humates: humates of monovalent cations (K, Na) are water-soluble; 2 shaft of cations (Ca, Mg) are insoluble in water, settle in the soil; 3-shaft cat (Fe, Al) is an organo-miner complex with clay minerals, which are insoluble in water. Humates have an adhesive ability and are taken into account in the formed soil structure. Sv-va FC: able to destroy soil minerals (weathering); soluble in water, to-takh, alkalis; their derivatives are fulvates. Monoval kat fulvates are water-soluble; 2nd and 3rd shaft kat - partially soluble. The degree of solubility depends on the metal saturation of the complex. FA and fulvates are light in color. FA and their derivatives have been accumulated for podzolic and soddy-podzolic soils.
7 . Condition. educated. humus. Amount and composition of humus in different types of soil
Contained. humus in% ranges from 0.5-12%. It depends on the type of soil. And on arable land it depends on the degree of cultivation. The composition of humus determines the ratio of C HA to C FA. Sod-podzol soils have this relation< 1 =>the composition of humus is humate-fulvate (HF). Forest gray = 1 –FG. Chernozems = 1.5-2 - G ... F-ry is formed by humus. 1. The accumulated humus is affected water-air soil regime. In prolonged anaerobic conditions, humus does not accumulate, it grows residues without decomposition. and the image of peat. B will continue aerobic exercise. condition. humus has not accumulated (increasing mineralization). The chemical composition is organic. leftovers or litter. 1) Coniferous litter. gives coarse humus - sour, because its decomposition occurs on the soil surface with the participation of fungi. Prevail. FA, a lot of semi-decomposed residues (tannins). Humus is mobile, not accumulating. 2) herbaceous litter is the best. The image is a fine humus with a predominance. GK. Decomposed id1t quickly. Neutral p-tion Wed, there are many bases in it, when decomposed, the image of humate is released, the cat is insoluble and accumulating. in the soil. 2. Granulometric composition of soil ... Most of the humus has accumulated. fine fractions of the soil, the cat is contained more in loamy soils. In clay soils, ananaerobic activity is partly created. conditions. In sand and sandy loam. mineralization occurs quickly in soils. 3. Soil-forming rocks ... The most valuable are carbonate rocks (loess, loess-like loams) - favorable. p-tion Wed, high activity of microorganisms, higher content of Ca, Mg cations.
8. Soil colloids
The soil is polydisperse cf. Colloid origin. 1. Dispersion path - crushing of larger particles into small ones - weathered. 2. Condensation - enlargement of small particles - physical or chemical connected molecules or ions - organic is formed. colloids (protein). Colloid composition ... 1. In the soil predominance. min colloids. They are represented by a secondary mineral (clay minerals (kaolinite)), amorphous secondary. hydroxides (Si - opal). 2. Organic colloids - in the soil are represented by FA and HA, protein, fiber and other protein substances. They are less stable than miner, because are subject to mineralization. 3. Organominer colloids - organic and mineral complexes in - in - humates and fulvates. Colloidal soil structure ... During the interaction of colloids with water, electric arose. forces and around colloidal particles in solution the image of a double electric layer, composition of the opposite. charged ions. Н 2 SiО 3 - dissociation -> Н + + НSiО 3 -. The core is a composition of molecules of a given substance (H 2 SiO 3). On the surface of the core is found. a layer of molecules capable of to dissociation into ions - the ionic-gene layer. Dissociated ions image layers: 1. A layer of ions with the greatest chemistry is adjacent to the nucleus. kinship with the core - the potential is the determining layer, the cat is defined. colloid charge sign. 2. Further, there are 2 layers of counterions: a) stationary; b) diffuse layer.
9. Coagulation and peptization of soil colloids
The nucleus is composed of an ion-gene layer, the potential of the defining layer, a fixed and diffuse layer. The potential difference between the fixed and diffuse layer is the tzetopotential. With an increase in the dissociation of colloids, the tsetopotential and the colloidal system will be in a state sol... At low dissociation tzetopotential ↓, colloidal particles stick together and the system will be in the state gel(draft). The state of the gel is most favorable. The transition of the colloidal system of their sol into a gel is coagulation. From gel to sol - peptization. Causes of coagulation: 1. Change of district cf. Acedoids coagulate in acidic, and basoids in alkaline cf. 2. Exposure to electrolytes (acids, salts, alkalis), which contain cations - coagulants. According to their coagulating ability, cations are ranked in the following order: Al-Fe - Ca - Mg - K - NH 4 - Na. 3. Mutual attraction of opposite colloids - acedoids and balloids. 4. Drying, freezing of the soil - loss of the colloid water shell. Reasons for peptization: 1. Call with alkali solutions 2. water. Watering with alkaline water leads to the destruction of colloids.
10. Acidoid, basoid, amphoteric colloids and their properties
According to the sign of the charge, colloids are divided into 3 groups: 1. Acedoids - acid-like - dissociate by the type of to-you and are characterized by a charge. 2. Basoids - dissociation. by the type of base, carry + charge. 3. Ampholitoids - can change the sign of the charge. In an acidic environment, they behave like basoids. In an alkaline environment, as acedoids. For amphoteric colloids, the electron-neutral position is characteristic. For Fe (OH) 3 pH = 7.1. for Al (OH) 3 pH = 8.1. This state, when the colloid is not charged, is isoelectric. colloid point.
11. Soil absorption complex
Absorb ability depends on soil absorb complex. The main part of the AUC is soil colloids. The composition and size of the soil-absorbing complex depends on the district of the environment, and the value on the content of humus and granulometric. soil composition. The most capable of absorbing soils, in which there are more colloids - heavy loamy and high-humus. Physical and chemical. or exchangeable absorb ability - the ability of the soil to absorb and exchange soil ions. solution for ions of the solid phase; mainly the ions of the diffuse layer of the colloidal micelle are exchanged. Better studied absorbed cations. Cations are absorbed when it is absorbed into the soil. complex> acedoids. For most soils, it is precisely the cationic one that is absorbed, because it contains more silicon to-you, humus to-t. The higher the valence of the cation, the more absorbable it is. Along with the same valence, the ability to be absorbed with increased. atomic weight. Fe> Al> H> Ca> Mg> K> NH 4> Na. In the soil, the H ion is attached by water and the form of the hydronium ion has a very large radius and hydrogen is actively absorbed. Simultaneously with absorption, it is displaced from the soil-absorbed. complex of cations. P-tion comes in an equivalent number; the easier the cation is incorporated, the more difficult it is displaced. The rate of absorbed depends on where the cations are absorbed. Cations are displaced to the outside faster. surface than between the layers of the crystal lattice.
12. The concept of absorption capacity ... Sorption capacity - the number of all in-in, the cat can absorb the soil. In the soil is found absorbed or exchangeable cations, which affect the properties of the soil. It will absorb the way har-Xia by the sum of all absorbed cations. E = ECO (capacity of the cationic volume) (mg / eq / 100 g of soil). The size of the capacity depends on: 1. Granulometric composition of the soil. 2. Contains humus. Than>, the> capacity is absorbed. 3. Mineralogical composition. The more in quality the clay minerals of the montmarilanite group, the> the capacity. The> the capacity, the> the soil contains nutrients and the higher the buffer capacity of the soil (the ability of the soil to resist is changed by the p-tions cf.). the composition of cations absorbed in different soils is different. hydrolysis, depending on the state of cations, soil excretion is saturated and unsaturated with bases. The amount of absorbed cations - S - the number of cations, which, when entering the solution, give the bases Ca, Mg, K, NH 4. (mg). The H and Al cations are isolated and denoted by H g and Al. Ca, Mg, K, NH 4) S; H, Al) H g. V - the degree of saturation of the soil with bases in% and calculated by f-le. V = S / E 100% = S / S + Hr 100%
13. Influence of absorbed cations on the agronomical properties of the soil
1. Absorbed cations - reserve nourishment for plants. 2. Influence the district of the Wed soil. 3. On physical properties and water-air modes of the soil. A) If the composition of the PPK has acquired Mg, Ca - they have a neutron pH, have a good structure. Ca is a structurant ion. The water-air regime is better here. B) if there is Na - the solution is alkaline, it inhibits the plants; Na is a peptizing ion, colloids are sol and are easily washed out. The soil in a wet state is structureless, viscous, in a dry state it is an image of a lump. The water-air regime and physical properties (salt licks) are unfavorable. C) if H and Al are present - acidic soils, little humus. They are structureless, after drying they form a crust, the water-air regime is unfavorable.
14. Absorb ability
Absorb soil ability - the ability of the soil to absorb and retain in the pores of the horizons, in the pores of microagrigates and on the surface of individual fine particles: gases, liquids, molecules, ions or particles of other colloids. Absorb ability depends on soil absorb complex. The composition and size of the soil-absorbing complex depends on the district of the environment, and the value depends on the content of humus and the granulometric composition of the soil. The most capable of absorbing soils in the cat. more colloids - heavy loamy and high-humus. 5 kinds will absorb capable :. 1. Mechanic - the ability of the soil to absorb and retain particles larger than the pore system. 2. Physical - change in the concentration of molecules of the dissolved substance on the surface of colloids. A) the concentration of substances on the surface of the particles - positive sorption - absorbed. in progress (sorption of gases, organic compounds, water, pesticides). B) if the concentration of the substance on the surface of the particles ↓ than in the solution - negates sorption - it is absorbed. does not go (chlorides, nitrates) - they are washed out. 3. Chemical - chemisorption - formed sparingly soluble, combined with the interaction of separate components of the soil solution. 4. Biological - associated with the life of a microorgan and a plant. Absorbing the elements pitan. organ image is alive in-va. 5. Physical and chemical. or exchangeable absorb ability - the ability of the soil to absorb and exchange soil ions. solution for ions of the solid phase; mainly the ions of the diffuse layer of the colloidal micelle are exchanged. Absorbed better studied. cations. Absorbed. cations goes when it is absorbed into the soil. complex> acedoids. For most soils, it is precisely the cationic one that is absorbed, because it contains more silicon to-you, humus to-t. The higher the valence of the cation, the more absorbable it is. Along with the same valence, the ability to be absorbed with increased. atomic weight. Fe> Al> H> Ca> Mg> K> NH 4> Na. In the soil, the H ion is attached. water and the image of the hydronium ion - has a very large radius and hydrogen is actively absorbed. Simultaneously with absorption, it is displaced from the soil-absorbed. complex of cations. P-tion comes in an equivalent number; the easier the cation is incorporated, the more difficult it is displaced. The speed absorbed depends on where the location is. absorbed cations. Cations are displaced to the outside faster. surface than between the layers of the crystal lattice. Influence of the composition of absorbed cations on soil properties ... 1. Absorbed cations - supply reserve. for plants. 2. Influence the district of the Wed soil. 3. On physical properties and water-air modes of the soil. A) If the composition of the PPK has acquired Mg, Ca - they have a neutron pH, have a good structure. Ca is a structurant ion. The water-air regime is better here. B) if there is Na - the solution is alkaline, it inhibits the plants; Na is a peptizing ion, colloids are sol and are easily washed out. The soil in a wet state is structureless, viscous, in a dry state it is an image of a lump. The water-air regime and physical properties (salt licks) are unfavorable. C) if H and Al are present - acidic soils, little humus. They are structureless, after drying they form a crust, the water-air regime is unfavorable.
15. Soil acidity . Origin
1. The formation of acidic soils is influenced by carbonate-free soils of glaciers and non-glaciers of origin. 2. Climate: develops under the conditions of the pouring type of water regime, when the coefficient is humidified> 1. (Ca and Mg are depleted). 3. Vegetation: coniferous forests and spagnum moss contribute to the increase in acidity. their litter is poor in foundations. 4. The podzolic process of soil formation enhances soil acidification, because with it, the colloids are washed out and destroyed. 5. Agricultural activity of people: violation of MBC, the use of physiological acid fertilizers. Types of acidity ... Acidity is associated in the soil with the presence of H and Al ions in the soil solution or AUC. 1. Actual- the acidity of the soil solution is associated with H ions in this solution. H is associated with the emergence of to-t, but they are weak mineral or organic (the products live a microorganism). This acidity is not harmful to the plants. 2. Potential- due to the presence of H and Al ions in the AUC, salt was found to be used for them: A) exchangeable - manifests itself when neutron salts (KCl) are applied to the soil. a strong to-that (HCl) appears, in addition, in strongly acidic soils, the base (Al (OH) 3) - mobile Al can envelop the root hairs of plants and the absorption capacity ↓. B) hydrolytic - manifests itself when an alkaline salt hydrolyte is applied to the soil. Less harmful because to-that weak, but it is more exchangeable to-you: as a result of alkalinization of the water solution from the PPK, N. ions are more displaced by this acidity, calculate the dose - mu-eq-100 gr. soil during titration. Strongly acidic soils are raised peatlands. Acid - podzolic, red soils. Neutral. - black soil. For most crops, the pH is 6-7. Liming is used to improve acidic soils; it contains exchangeable acidity. For the exact requirements of soils in lime, it is necessary to know the exchange pH: less than 4.5 - strongly acidic; 4.6-5 - sour-in need; 5.1-5.5 - slightly sour - moderately needed; 5.6 -6.0 - not sour - poorly in need; 6.0 - close to neutral - do not need.
16. Liming
To improve acidic soils, scaling is used, it contains exchangeable acidity. For the exact requirements of soils in lime, it is necessary to know the exchange pH: less than 4.5 - strongly acidic; 4.6-5 - sour-in need; 5.1-5.5 - slightly sour - moderately needed; 5.6 -6.0 - not sour - poorly in need; 6.0 - close to neutral - do not need. By hydrolytic. acidity calculated. dose of lime CaCO 3 = H r · a t / ha. Influence of lime on fertility. 1. Neutralization. organ to - you, eliminate acidity. 2. Changing the composition of the AUC, in it H and Al are replaced by K and Mg, the amount absorbed is based and the soil saturation is based. 3. Conditions improve. for humification and formed the structure of the soil, water-air and thermal regimes, nitrogen pit, tk. number and activity of microorganisms. 4. When liming, when Ca is introduced, it is difficult to dissolve. Al and Fe phosphates are converted into Ca phosphates, which are better available for plants. 5. The effectiveness of physiological increases. acidic fertilizers. Uses: TV rocks of limestone, chalk, industrial waste (shale ash).
17. Granulometric composition
Particles of different sizes - mechanic el-you of the soil. Anything larger than 1 mm is composed. soil skeleton (cartilage). He is comp. from fragments of magmatic. and metamorphic. breeds and primary. minerals. It is not active. part of the soil. Particles less than 1 mm in size - fine earth: 1. Sand fraction (particles from 1-0.05 mm). Compiled by from primary. mineral with high water permeability. The presence in the soil contributes to the rapid wear of tools. Soils containing a lot of sand, pos. low fertility. 2. Dusty (from 0.05-0.001 mm) comp. from primary. minerals - coarse dust, medium and fine - secondary. miner. Contains dusty particles that promote stickiness, soil flotation and fracturing. 3. Silty (<0,001). Сост. из вторичн. минер. Это самая активная часть почвы. Обладает высокой поглотит способностью и способствует накоплен гумуса. Мелкозём раздел на физич песок (частицы 1-0,01мм. Сост. из песка мелкого, среднего, крупного и пыли крупной) и физич. глину (частица < 0,01мм. Сост. из пыли средней, мелкой, ила, коллоидов). В основу классификац почв по гранулометрич. сост. положено соотношен. в ней в процентах физич. песка и физич. глины.1. Пески (0-10% глины, 90-100 песка). 2. Супеси (10-20, 90-80). 3. Лёгкие суглинки (20-30,70-80). 4. Средние суглинки (30-40,60-70). 5. Тяжёлосуглинист (40-50,50-60). 6. Глины (>50,<50). Чем >the clay physicist, the heavier the soil. In heavy soils in the same soil zone, accumulating. water, ale pit and humus, compared to light soils. But these soils slowly warm up in the spring and dry out and count for a long time. cold soils. They require a lot of processing effort. Light soils are often kept. little moisture, but these soils in the spring quickly warm up and dry out. and are considered warm. For every soil. the zone has its own optimal. for rast. granulometric comp. In our zone (sod-podzolite) - sredny loam with a clay content of 35%. In chernozem soil - heavy loam - 50%, because lack of moisture. Clay granulometric Compiled by not optimal in any zone.
18. Physics, physical-mechanics of soil sv-va
General phys. St. you relate to the density of the soil, the density of the solid phase and porosity. Physical properties of soil : solid density phase is the ratio of solid mass. phase of the soil to the mass of water in the same volume at 4 gr. Determined by the ratio in the soil org. and a miner of components (organic matter 0.2-1.4, miner -2.1-5.18, miner horizons-2.4-2.65, peat horizons-1.4-1.8 g / cm 3.) Density is the mass of a unit volume of absolutely dry soil taken in nature. addition. Depends on miner and fur comp. and structures containing. org. islands (if there are many, then dense. low.). It is affected by processing. Optim = 1-1.2 Porosity- the total volume of all pores between the particles of the TV phase. (%) Depends on the fur. SOS. the structure of the activity of the soil of the fauna, containing. org. in-va, processing ... Non-capillary pores- water penetration, air exchange. Capillary - water retention sp. You need capillary - a lot, and the porosity of aeration is 15 per miner. and 30-40 in peat. soils. Optim non-capil-55-65 (lower = worse air exchange. Fiz fur St. Plasticity - cn. soil to change shape and maintain it. Depends on HMS moisture content humus (if a lot, then worse), containing. Na (much better). Stickiness - St. wet soil to stick to other bodies. Depends on the fur comp. and HMS, humidity, exchange of Na and humus. Phys. ripeness- the soil crumbles into lumps without sticking to the implement. Biospelost b - when bioprocesses develop (growth of seeds of active micro-s). Swelling- increase. the volume of the soil with uvl. Depends on pogl. SP and miner comp. (montmorilanite = better, kaolinite worse, Na (better with it). Shrinkage-reduction of soil volume upon drying, depends on absorption capacity, Na, miner composition. Connectivity- cn to resist external force trying to separate soil particles Depends on miner and fur. composition, structure, humus - worse, humidity and use., HMS (heavy better), Na-better. Resistivity- effort, expend. for tillage. Depends on density, moisture, cohesion and GMR.
19. Soil structure
The ability of the soil to disintegrate into aggregates is called. structure, and a set of aggregates of various sizes, shapes and qualitative composition is called. soil structure. The qualitative assessment of the structure is determined by its size, porosity, mechanical strength and water resistance. The most agronomically valuable are macroaggregates 0.25-10 mm in size with high porosity (%) and mechanical strength. Structural soil is considered to contain more than 55% of water-resistant aggregates 0.25-10 mm in size. The stability of the structure to mechanical stress and the ability not to collapse when moistened determine the preservation of the soil of a favorable constitution with repeated treatments and moistening. The agronomic value of the structure lies in the fact that it has a positive effect on: physical. sv-va - porosity, bulk density; water, air., thermal, redox, microbiological and nutritional. modes; physical and mechanical sv-va - connectivity, resistivity about processing, crust formation; anti-erosion resistance of soils. On soils of the same type, of the same genetic difference and in similar agrotechnical conditions, the structural soil is always more favorable for agricultural crops with indicators than unstructured or low-structured. Education ... In the formation of the macrostructure of the soil, two processes can be distinguished: the mechanical separation of the soil into aggregates and the formation of solid, not washed out in water units. They proceed under the influence of physical-mechanical., Physical-chemical., Chemical. and biological. factors of structure formation. Physics and mechanics. factors determine the process of crumbling the soil mass under the influence of changing pressure or mechanical. impact. The action of these factors can be attributed to the separation of the soil into lumps as a result of changes with alternating drying and moisture, frozen. and thawing water in it. The cultivation of the soil with agricultural implements has a great influence on the formation of the soil structure. Physical and chemical plays an important role in structure formation. factors - coagulation and cementing effect of soil colloids. Water resistance is acquired by bonding mechanical elements and micro-aggregates with colloidal things. But so that the detachments held together by colloids do not spread out from the action of water, the colloids must be irreversibly coagulated. Such coagulants in soils are bivalent and trivalent cations Ca, Mg, Fe, Al. A certain gluing and cementing effect on soil lumps can be produced by chemical. factors - different education. sparingly soluble chem. compounds, the cat, when impregnating the soil aggregates, cement them, and can also aggregate and separate-partial mechanical. elements. The main role in structure formation belongs to biological. factors, i.e. vegetation, organisms. grows up. mechanical compacts the soil and divides it into lumps, most importantly, it participates in the formation of humus. The activity of worms in structuring has long been known. Particles of soil, passing through the intestinal tract of worms, are compacted and discarded in the form of small lumps - caprolites - high water resistance.
20. Types of water in soil
1. Chemically linked . water. The entrance to the composition is different. in-in or crystals - gypsum, opal. It is plant accessible and removed at a very high temperature. 2. Sorbed. moisture (hygroscopic). Soil. parts are charged and have an unsaturated surface. Water molecules are oriented around these unsaturated particles and these layers can consist of 2-3 molecules. This moisture is microscopic. Its containment depends on the content of the vodians. vapors in atmospheric air. The size of this moisture depends on a) the granulometric composition (the>, the>); b) humus is not available for plants, because is firmly connected with the miner by a part of the soil and has a solid body. 3. Film moisture ... At max hygroscopicity, the surface tension forces are not fully saturated. If the soil is brought into contact with liquid moisture, then it will supplement - absorb some part of the water - film water. It can move from particles, where the size of the film>, to particles, where<. Доступна частично. 4. Capillary moisture - find. in very thin pores of the soil. Held at the expense of the minesky. forces. She yavl. main a source of water supply. plant. Various capillary moisture . – capillary-backed- from the ground level, water-I moisture is raised. up. Rise height - capillary border - in loams - 3-6 m. - capillary-suspended- has no connection with ground waters and arose during the downward movement of water due to precipitation. precipitation. - capillary-disconnected(butt) - har-na for light soils. Find. at the junction of particles and plants. Use her if the spine falls into this zone. 5. Gravitational moisture. - it moves freely in large pores under the action of gravity. Easily converts to other types. moisture. Not available plant. 6. Solid moisture (ice) - not available for plant., but at optimum. humidity of freezing, thawing of soil, contributing. formed by the structure of the soil. 7. Vaporous moisture find. in all pores of the soil free from liquid and solid water. Image when evaporated from all forms of moisture. Not available as steam, but available after condensation.
21. Water properties of soils ... - water-lifting and water-retaining ability, water permeability. Water lifting. capable of ... - the soil is able to raise water along the capillaries due to the meniscus forces. The height of the rise of moisture capils can be expressed by the Juren f-lo. H = 0.15 / r than> capil, the> lifting height. The most> h capil. rise - loam - 6 m. in sand and sandy loam - 3-5 times<. Скорость подъёма воды будет у песчанных и супесчанных почвах. Water permeability - capable. the soil to move water under gravity through large pores. In the process of water infiltrates. different. 2 stages: 1. Saturation with soil moisture. 2. Filtering - moved. water down. Vodopron. depends on 1. Granulometric. soil composition (the lighter the soil, the faster). 2. The structure of the soil (lumps let water through better. 3. The composition of the ALC (presence of Na, ↓ water content). 4. From the composition of the soil. Water retention. ability ... - depends on the mass of the soil. Soil hydrological constants. MAV - maximum adsorption moisture capacity - the largest amount of water, firmly bound and held by the forces of sorption. MG - maximum hygroscopicity - characterizes the extremely high amount of vaporous water, cat. can be absorbed and retained by soil. VZ - humidity of steady wilting - humidity, when the cat, plants begin to show signs of wilting, which do not disappear when these plants move into an atmosphere saturated with water vapor, the lower limit of the moisture available to plants. ВЗ = 1.3 - 1.4 · MG. HB - the smallest moisture capacity (limiting field moisture capacity) - the largest amount of capillary suspended moisture. It corresponds to the upper limit of the moisture available to plants and is used when calculating field norms. PV - full moisture capacity - corresponds to the porosity of the soil, i.e. the soil contains water with its entire volume.
22. Water regime in soil
This is a combination of input, movement, retention, consumption of moisture in the soil: 1) groundwater runoff. 2) surface runoff and snow drift. 3) soil evaporation. 4) evaporation by plants. It depends on the moisture coefficient (K uvl) - the ratio of the amount of precipitation to evaporation. K uvl = precipitation: evaporation. Types ... 1) leaching: K uvl> 1 - precipitation constantly soaks the soil column to groundwater. This is typical for the taiga-forest zone, where podzolic and sod-podzolic soils are formed; for the zone of humid subtropics and tropics, where red soils are formed. 2) Periodically flushing: K uvl ≈ 1 - soaked. soil to groundwater occurs periodically, when the amount of precipitation> evaporation. Har-but for the forest-steppe zone, where the formir. gray forest soils. 3) non-flush: K uvl< 1 – влага осадков распредел только в верхнем гориз. и никогда не достиг грунтов вод. Для степной зоны, где формир. чернозёмы. 4) выпадной: К увл ≈ 0.4-0.5 – испаряемость >the amount of precipitation occurring. upward movement of water, and with it salts. Chestnut soils. 5) permafrost type - typical for permafrost regions. In summer, the soil thaws by 50-60 cm, below is the permafrost, which serves as a waterproof layer. A gley process (waterlogging) takes place. 6) irrigation type - it is created artificially during irrigation, while the soil is periodically wetted.
23. Chemical composition . Si- entrance to the state. quartz, silicate, aluminosilicate. As a result, silicon transition to solution in f-me of ortho anions is formed. and methosilicon to-t (SiO 4, SiO 2). Al- as part of the primary. and secondary. miner, in the f-me aluminum-iron humus complex, in acidic soils is in an absorbed state. in PPK, with very acidic cf. it appeared in the form of ions Al (OH) 2, AlOH in the soil solution. They are not needed for plants. Fe- is necessary for the formation of chlorophyll. In the composition of the secondary and primary minerals, in the form of simple salts, the aluminum-iron humus complex, in the absorbed state in the PPK; at pH<3 ионы появл в р-ре. На нейтр. и щелочн. почвах растен. могут испытыв недостат. Myself g- Mg entrance to the state. chlorophyll. It is of great importance in the creation of favorable conditions for plants, physicists, physicists and biologists of the soil. They are found in the soil. in the crystal lattice is a mineral, in the form of simple salts in the soil. solution, in an exchange-absorbed state. in the PPK. Sa is among the swallowed up. cations - first place. Mg is the second. Rasten. in these ions without testing. disadvantage, but many soils need liming and gypsum in order to improve their St.
TO- carries out an important physiological. f-tion plant, consumed. in large quantities, especially potassium-favorite crops (potatoes). The gross content of K in soils depends on the granulometry. composition and in heavy soils reaches 2-2.4%. This means that part K is part of the secondary lattice crystal. and primary. miner - not available. To find. in organic connected, the cat is available after mineralization. K in the form of simple salts in soil solution - salts are primarily used. Exchangeable K is contained in an absorbed state. S- entry into the composition of essential oils, the need for it is not great. Biological accumulation of S in the upper horizons depends on the conditions of soil formation. Shafts contained S fluctuates by 2 orders of magnitude 0.001 - 2%. S find. in comp. sulfates, sulfites and organic. in-va. Sulfates K, Na, Mg are readily soluble in water and find. in the soil solution. The SO 4 anion is poorly absorbed by the soil. Accumulating. in arid climates. N - entrance to the state. all proteins in-in. Contained in chlorophyll, nuclein to-takh, etc. organic. in-wah. The main mN is concentrated in organic. in-ve and its content depends on the content of humus. N≈1 / 40-1 / 20 part of humus. Rasten. it is available in the form of an ammonium ion, the cat is contained in the PPK and in solution. NO 3 find. in soil solution, not absorbed, easily washed out. P - entrance to the organic Conn. in plant. Gross contains 0.05-0.2% of it in sod-podzolic soil; 0.35-0.5% in black soil. In the soil after mineralization. available plant. It contains minerals in the form of salts (Ca, Mg). In acidic soils, there are many phosphates Al 4, Fe, which are not available for plants. A small part can be contained in the form of phosphate anions in the AUC.
25. The main morphological properties of the soil ... - Holy Island, the cat can be defined. visually or with simple tools. 1. Soil profile thickness - soil thickness affected by soil formation. Depends on the climate. 2. The presence and power of genetic. horizons. Genetic horizons have letter designations. A 0 is the organogenic horizon. And 1 - humus accumulative. And 2 is eluvial. or podzolic. B - illuvial - in soils where observation. washout; transitional - in soils where it is not moved from top to bottom. C is the parent breed. D - underlying rock. If the soil is waterlogged, then section G is the gley horizon.
26. The essence of the podzolized process
V pure form the podzolic process takes place under the canopy of a coniferous forest, i.e. there are no herbaceous plants. Litter. terrestrial sour, it is rich in waxes, tannins, resins. It is hardly degradable and hardly soluble. connections. The litter is poor in N, in bases. The activity of bacteria is suppressed. Tanning substances are toxic to bacteria. Litter. decomposed by fungi. The decomposition process is slow => the image is organic. to-you. FA predominates and a number of low molecular weight forms. to-t. They move down and interact with the mineral part of the soil. When mineralization is formed, there are few bases => there is no neutralization to-t => they destroy various compounds. As a result of the leaching type of water regime, all readily soluble salts in the form of fulvates K, NH 4, etc. are removed from the upper part of the soil. FAs destroy the primary. and secondary. soil minerals, silt and colloids => they are washed out. Al, Fe is washed out in the form of complex complex compounds. Resistant to destruction are minerals and silica groups, the cat remains and is not washed out.
27. The essence of the sod process
In the taiga-forest zone, soddy soil formation is developed. In combination with podzolic, sod-podzolic soils are formed. The main role is to grow, because of it there is humus in the soil, a pit in-va, a permeable structure. Res-tat - humusaccum. horizon - A 1. Actively under meadow and meadow-steppe vegetation in the taiga-forest zone - dry land. and floodplain meadows and sparse forest with grass. Features of herbaceous plants... It has an intense MBC. Litter is rich in N, bases => MBC with N, Mg, Ca. An essential role is the root system. Root hairs are constantly dying off and growing. Developed in the zone. roots have been created, where bioprocesses are vigorously going. Roots decompose in close contact with minerals (favors humification and consolidation in). The degree of development of processes is not the same and depends on humidity, t (25-30), the presence of herbaceous litter, aerobic process. If anaerobic, then there is a conservation and formation of peat. In the taiga-forest zone under good growth 1) A 1 is poorly developed - due to the opposition of sod and podzol processes. 2) organic residues grown on carbonate-free soils are poor in N and bases. Therefore, acidic products are weakly neutralized with bases. They enhance podzolization.
28. Sod-podzolic soil
Type of water regime- flushing, coeff. humidified> 1. Grows- under the influence of the cat formed. soil: mixed forests and meadow grows. Harr parent rocks: carbonate-free glacial and water-glacial origin. Soil forming. processes: podzol and soddy. Classification of soils by degree podzolization: no continuous podzolic horizon. in sod-slightly podzolic; soddy-medium podzolic M = 20 cm (A 2); sod-strongly podzolic = 20-30; sod-deep podzol => 30. Profile slender: A 0 - forest litter (3-5cm); А 1 - humus - eluvial horizon (15-20 cm); And 2 - podzolic; А 2 В - transitional horizon; B - illuvial; C - breed. Neoplasm: Ortshnein grains, Ortsand interlayers, organic leaks. islands in B horizon. Contains humus... Its composition, character, quantity vary along the profile: in virgin soils: 2-3% -4-6%. In arable soils: 1.5-2%. The composition is fulvate or humate-fulvate. The composition of the absorbed cations: H, Al, Ca, Mg. P-tion of the environment acidic and highly acidic throughout the profile.
29. Ways to increase fertility
Sod-podzol soils have a number of unfavorable sv-in: acidic; contain few e-tov pitan; humus. A system aimed at improving these signs is sharpening. Highly cultivated soils should have: - the thickness of the groin< 25 см для зернов и не < 35 для овощных; - они должны содержать не < 2,5% гумуса для полев севооборотов и не < 3,5% для овощных; - иметь слабокисл, нейтр р-цию ср; высокую насыщенность основаниями и содержан подвижн. ф-м Р и К выше среднего. Поэтому: 1. Известкование. 2. Припашка подзолистого горизонта с одновременным внесен органич. удобрен. 3. Внесен. азотн. удобрен. 4. Фосфорн. удобрен. 5. Калийных удобр. 6. Фосфоритование (фосфоритная мука) - запасы валового содержан Р, нейтрализ. кисл. р-цию ср. 7. Внесен. микроэлементов (молибден под бобовые культуры).
30. The essence of the swamp process
Swamp soils are formed under the action of 2 processes - peat formation and gleying. They are united by the swamp process. Peat formation is the accumulation of semi-decomposed plant residues on the soil surface as a result of their slowed down humification and mineralization under conditions of excessive moisture. In the initial stage of waterlogging, moisture-loving autotrophic herbaceous plants appeared, the cat in the subsequent stage will be replaced by green mosses, cuckoo flax and white moss. Under anaerobic conditions, the intensity of oxidative processes is greatly weakened and organic matter is not fully mineralized, inter-products are formed in the form of low-molecular organic matter. to-t, the cat suppress the vital activity of microorganisms, playing. the main role in the processes of transformation of organic. in the soil. When organic matter is decomposed under anaerobic conditions, it accumulates on the soil surface. semi-decomposed organic in-islands in the form of peat. In its natural state, the peat stratum contains up to 95% water, therefore, reducing conditions prevail in it. The porosity of aeration occurs in the surface layer, where the most active processes are developed. organic in-islands of peat. Gleying is a complex biochemistry. will restore the process that occurs during waterlogging of soils in anaerobic conditions. condition. with the indispensable presence of organic in islands and participation of anaerobic. microorganisms. With gley formation, the destruction of primary and secondary occurs. minerals. The connected processes are subject to essential processes. elements with valence changes. The most characteristic feature of gley formation is the reduction of ferric oxide to ferrous.
31. Soils of the upper type are waterlogged
Boggy upland soils are formed on watersheds in the conditions of wetting with fresh stagnation. waters. Their cover grows represented by sphagnum moss, semi-shrubs and woody species. The degree of development of the process of soil formation is different. 2 subtypes of soils - bog peat-gley and bog raised peat. Bog peat-gley soils - the thickness of peat horizons is less than 50 cm, they form in lower parts of watersheds or along the edges of raised bogs. The soil profile includes sphagnum wool, peat horizon, and gley horizon. Boggy raised peat soils (the thickness of the peat horizons is more than 50 cm). They occupy the central parts of raised peat bogs on the watershed plains and sandy terraces of the taiga-forest zone under specific oligotrophic vegetation. In the type of upland soils, genera are distinguished: 1. Common. Organogenic horizon, composed of sphagnum peat. 2. Transitional residual lowland zaphagnye. 3. Humus-ferruginous. Division into species by characteristics: 1. By the thickness of the organogenic horizon in the peat deposit: peaty-gley shallow (peat thickness 20-30 cm); peat-gley (30-50); peat on small peat (50-100); peat on medium peat (100-200); peat on deep peat (> 200). 2. By the degree of decomposition of peat: peat - the degree of decomposed peat< 25%; перегнойно-торфян. -25-45%.
32. Soils of the lowland type are swampy
Swamp lowland forms. in deep relief depressions on watersheds, on ancient floodplain terraces and in depressions of river valleys. Education is taking place. under autotrophic and mesotrophic vegetation in conditions of excessive moisture by groundwater. According to the degree of development of the process, it is soil formed. Differences. 4 subtypes of bog lowland soils: low-lying depleted peat-gley soils, low-lying depleted peat soils; low-lying peat-gley; low-lying peat. The first 2 types of form. under action. slightly mineralized. ground waters, the rest - under the influence. hard water soils. The division into childbirth is defined. elevated content. in peat ash. soils with carbnates, we will dissolve in water. salts, Fe combined, and the like.
33. Gray forest soils
Periodically flush type of water regime. Kuvl = 1. Vegetation - deciduous forests. Har-r of parent rocks - loess-like loams, carbonate rocks, limestones. Soddy soil-forming process and superimposing podzolic. A 0 - forest litter; А 1 - humus horizon. А 1 А 2 - humus-podzolized; A 2 B - transitional; B - illuvial; C - breed. Humus in virgin soils -3-8%, in arable soils 2-5%. Its composition is fulvate-humate. Change - decrease with depth. P-tion of the medium is weakly acidic and acidic in the upper horizons; neutral in depth. The upper horizons are depleted in sesquioxides and enriched in silica. The density of the solid phase of gray forest soils down the profile, which is associated with the content of humus. High compaction density of illuvial horizons. Unfavorable. Phys. Holy Island. Depletion in silt, enriched with silt fractions.
34. Chernozems
Type of water regime: non-flush (closed) Kuvl: 0.7-0.9. Vegetation: broadleaf. forests, meadows of grasses, feather-grass-forbs plants., feather-grass-tipchata grows. Loess and loess. Coal., Carbonate rocks. Sod process. In leached and podzolized chernozems, podzolization occurs, and in southern soils, it is a solonetz process. The depth of boiling is where the deposition is. Sa: u podzolized. 140-150 cm, leached 100-140 cm, typical 85-120 cm, ordinary 50-60 cm, southern 0-30. Horizon thickness classification: podzolized: 75-90 cm; leached: 90-100 cm; typical: 100-120 cm; ordinary: 65-80 cm; southern; 40-50 cm. A c-stern; А 1 (А) - humusacc goriz; AB (B 1) - the lower part of the humus horizon; B 2 - transitional; B to - carbonate; C - mother breed. The humus content is high 6-12%. Its composition is humate, decreases with depth. P-tion of the medium is weakly alkaline, weakly acidic, neutral. It is more alkaline with depth. Outbound is distributed along the profile of silica, sesquioxides, silt, colloids and chemical. honeycomb In podzolized and leached chernozems there is little leaching.
35. Soils of riparian valleys
Part of the territory of the river valley, periodically flooded with river waters, is called. catch it. The territory of the floodplain, depending on its distance from the channel, is divided into 3 areas: near-river, central, near-terrace. They are different. by the composition of alluvial deposits, relief, hydrological. condition. and soil cover. Mechanic the composition of alluvium is related to the speed of movement of hollow waters in the floodplain: the> the flow rate, the> the size of the settling particles. The flow velocity decreases from the channel into the depths of the floodplain. In the area of the central and near-terrace floodplains, where the speed of hollow waters is slower and the duration of flooding is longer, postponing. alluvium, consisting. from dusty and silty particles. As you move away from the channel, the mechanical changes. the composition of alluvial soils, in which the content of dust and silt increases and the number of sand particles decreases. Layering is characteristic of alluvial sediments. The mechanic and chemical composition, as well as the amount of deposited alluvium, are influenced by the composition of soils and rocks of the catchment area, climatic features, afforestation and plowing of the basin. In areas with non-forest basins, it occurs. rapid melting of snow, which contributes to the deposition of alluvium in the floodplain with a large amount of sand and coarse dust particles. To mehan. alluvium composition the relief of the floodplain. Priuslov. the floodplain usually has a wavy relief with pronounced sandy banks and high manes. In the central floodplain, against the general background of the flat relief, raised areas - manes, lowered - logs are well distinguished. Central floodplain - stretched along the bed of the lake, overgrown with willow bushes along the banks. The near-terrace floodplain is somewhat lowered in relation to the central one. floodplain territory, mostly swampy. Depending on local conditions. some areas of the floodplain may be poorly expressed or absent.
36. Soil erosion
Types: flat (natural, accelerated), linear. Ravine image -> ravines (beams when overgrown). ↓ helpful the arable area, the territory of the mills is dismembered, soil cultivation becomes difficult, the level of groundwater decreases, and water supply deteriorates. plant. Influence e - climate, vegetation, exposure, relief, HMS, soil structure (structureless and easily washed off). activity
37. Soil materials surveyed
The soil map displays the features of the spatial located soils, showing. pits of combinations and complexes of soils in each specific area of the territory. In the explication to the map, indicate the area of actual use of all soils for the land. The degree of detail and depth has been studied. soils depends on the detail of the scale of the studies carried out. The more difficult the situation is - a dismembered relief, diverse growing groups, a complex soil cover - the larger the scale should be. Differences: 1. Detailed 1: 200-1: 5000. 2. Large scale 1: 1000-1: 50,000. 3. Medium-scale 1: 100000-1: 30,000. 4. Small scale. smaller than 1: 500000. 5. Survey 1: 2500000. In the taiga zone 1: 10000; in the forest-steppe - 1: 25000; in the steppe zone 1: 25000-1: 5000. Large scale maps - utility maps are used, based on cat charts. housekeeping activities. Medium Scale overview maps, displaying enlarged indicators of the characteristics of the soil cover. Small scale - documents for used in practical. activities by regional and republican agricultural bodies, for scientists and other surveys. goals. Cartograms - cartographic. documents specifying individual properties of soils and territories.
38. Understand about the land registry
Land cadastre - a set of reliable and necessary information about the natural, economic and legal status of lands. Include. registration data of land users, accounting for the number and quality of land, soil appraisal and economic. land appraisal. Soil Bonitization- their comparative (point) assessment of the natural properties associated with natural fertility. Soil Bonitization is a classification of soils according to their productivity, based on the characteristics and properties of the soils themselves, necessary for the growth and development of agricultural crops and information about the average long-term yield of the latter. It is a continuation of comprehensive land surveys and precedes eq. assessment. Soil grading allows you to take into account the quality of soils by their fertility in relative units - points. That's why when appraising Soils determine how many times a given soil is better (worse) than another in terms of properties and productivity. The purpose of the appraisal soils - to evaluate soils that have fertility and other saints and the signs that it acquired in the process of both natural-historical and social-ec development of society. To carry out appraisal work, a detailed study of all soil properties and long-term data on the yield of agricultural crops grown on these soils is required. The main evaluative factors: the thickness of the humus horizon, granulometric composition, fur composition, content of humus and nutrients, acidity, thermal and water-physical properties, absorption capacity, the need for reclamation and other measures, the content of substances harmful to plants. A soil variety was used as a taxonomic unit, on the basis of which two parallel scales were formed: for soil properties and for yield. Assessment object is the soil, subdivided into certain agro-production groups, equivalent in economic suitability, lying on the same elements of the relief, similar in terms of moisture conditions, level of fertility, the same type of necessary agrotechnical and reclamation measures and close in physical, chemical and other properties that affect the yield of agricultural crops.
39. Soil fertility
Fertility - the ability of the soil to meet the needs of plants for nutrients, water, air, Q and other factors of life necessary for growth and developed plants. and formed the harvest of agricultural crops. Differences. fertility categories: 1. Natural fertility- formir. as a result of the course of natural soil formation. process, without the intervention of people. It manifests itself on virgin soils and har-na biocenoses. 2. Naturally anthropogenic- the involvement of soils in agricultural production causes a definite transformation of natural soil formation. process. Agrocenoses. 3. Artificial- formirv. re-those activities of people by means of a certain combination of factors of fertility. Each category is incl. 2 forms: potential - the potential of the soil, due to the combination of its sv-in and modes, with favorable. Condition. provide for a long time with all the necessary factors of life. Effective fertility - that part of the fertility, the cat directly providing the productivity of the plant. Economical fertility - effective fertility., Expressed in value terms, taking into account the cost of the crop and the cost of obtaining it. Carries out fertility. - soil fertility in relation to a certain culture or a group of crops that are biologically close. requirement. Fertility elements :. 1.A) available el-tov. pitan. B) availability of available plant moisture. V) contained. in the soil of the air. 2.A) physical and chemical. B) biological V) agro-physics of soil properties. 3. The presence of toxic substances in the soil: A) easily soluble. salt. B) products of anaerobic decomposed - methane. V) the use of pesticides, herbicides. G) dirty. soils with heavy metals, radionuclides.
40. Agrochemical soil analysis . Determined by actual acidity it is necessary in order to select the f-mu, the dose and combination of fertilizers, as well as the selection of crops for crop rotations. Exchangeable acidity - determining the need for liming. Hydrolytic acidity - to calculate the dose of lime. The amount of exchange is based - for the needs of the soil. Contents humus - what is contained. humus, which fertilizers are needed. R and K - how many mobile, and how much is needed for application with fertilizer.
41. The role of geology in agriculture
Geology is the science of the Earth. In accordance with the tasks facing geology, In accordance with the tasks facing geology, its subdivision into a number of interrelated scientific disciplines, including soil science. It is considered. surface layers of the earth's crust, possessing. fertility, - soil.
42. Earth's crust
In the earth's crust according to geophysics. data can be divided into 3 main. layer: 1. Sedimentary. - suck. from soft layered rocks. 2. Granite - denser than sedimentary. 3. Basalt - very dense. Sedimentary layer compose products are destroyed by various crystalline - magmatic. and metamorphic. - rocks blown into the sea. They also include poured-sedimentary. breed. The rocks of this layer are pos. well pronounced layering and contain fossils. The thickness of this layer on the shields of ancient platforms is 5–20 m; in the central. parts of platforms, in the shelf zones of the ocean - 50-100. Boundary layer comp. from light dense crystalline rocks with quartz, feldspar, hornblende. The thickness is 35,000 m. The basalt layer is composed of black, dark, densest rocks without quartz - basalts. Sedimentary and border. layers are intermittent. The boundary between sedimentary. and border. tracing layers. clearly, but between granite. and baselts. poorly.
43. Outer shells
Differences. External geosphere - atmosphere, hydrosphere. Atmospheres a - gaseous shell of the Earth. Atmospheric air in the surface layers of composition of N - 78%, O 2 - 20.95%, argon - 0.93; carbon dioxide -0.045% and other gases -0.01%. Gases are absorbed from the air by plants. and animal., again act. into the air, I drive, rocks. Most of the m atmosphere is concentrated in the troposphere layer. This layer rotates with the Earth. The layers above - meso, thermo, ecosphere - are different. by t. Air masses of contact. in zones of atmospheric fronts - boundary layers. Within these layers, they become infected. vortex air movements - cyclones and anticyclones. Since they are calling. Define. weather, they are studied and predicted. Hydrosphere... This is a discontinuous shell of the earth, which is a collection of oceans, seas, ice. covers, lakes and rivers. Average t of ocean waters - 4. World ocean is cold. There is a highlight in it: the upper warm layer, the cold layer. Huge means. for the climate, there is a continuous movement of the waters of the World Ocean, which creates a complex phenomenon of mixing of waters - turbulence and convective motion. The water balance of the Earth is a large geological cycle, consisting of 3 links: continental, oceanic, atmospheric.
44. The concept of minerals ... - chem. element or chemical. connected, formed in the cut-those natural. process. 1. In progress: primary, secondary A) primary- an image from magma by its crystallization. In the process, magma solidified the stage: proper magmatic, pneumatolytic, pegmatite, hydrothermal, volcanic. (quartz, mica). B) secondary- the image in three ways: from the primary at shallow depths or the surface of the earth (opal); krisstalizats. salts from water solutions (gypsum); formed from living organisms (phospharide). 2. By chemical composition . 1. Native elements(0.1% of the mass of the earth's crust) (gold); 2. Sulfides(sulfur compounds) (combined metals and metaltaloids in sulfur - 0.15%) (kolchadan); 3.Halides(salts of halogens to-t) (lake or sea sediments - 0.5%) (gallide). 4. Oxides and hydroxides(17%) (silicon oxides - 12.6% - quartz; aluminum - oxide; Fe - lemonide). 5. Salts of oxygen to-t... A) silicates, aluminosilicates (75%) (micas). B) carbonates (2% - salts of carbonic acid) (malachite). B) sulfates (0.5%) (barite). D) phosphates (0.75%) (phosphoride). E) nitrates (Norwegian Ca nitrate).
45. Primary Miner ... Image from magma through crystallization. Cured in the process. magmas of the stage: proper magmatic, pneumatolytic, pegmatite, hydrothermal, volcanic. The soil from the primary minerals contains quartz, fields. spar, mica. The rest are destroyed before the secondary. And the soil is given large fractions, and the more there are, the more light granulometric. the composition has soil. These soils possess. good water permeability, a lot of air. Determines agrophysical. Holy Island soil.
46. Secondary Miner . O braz in three ways: from primary at shallow depths or the surface of the earth (opal); krisstalizats. salts from water solutions (gypsum); formed from living organisms (phospharide). Easily soluble. salts, which provide nutrients for plants. Hydroxides Fe, Si, Al (colloids in the soil) and clay miner (kaolinite), determining the chemical composition of the soil, absorbed and retained water and water supply, the water-physical properties of the soil, determining the pH of the soil.
47. Agronomical ore ... Helpful. Fossil. Use how fertilized. or fertilized as a raw material for production. - agricultural ore. They are a classifier. for the element Pitan: phosphoric. (opatite), potassium (sylvtnid), calcium (calcide), nitrogen (Ca nitrate), sulfuric (pyrites).
48. Magmatic forge of rocks . I ... By condition formed they are divided into: 1. Intrising(deep) - magma solidified inside the earth - crystallizes (granite) - clear crystalline. 2. Effusive- when frozen. lava on the surface of the earth. Freeze fast: cryptocrystalline. (basalt), porphyry structure (quartz arphyrite), glassy (absidian). II ... By silica content ... 1. In the f-me of pure quartz. 2. As part of selicates, aluminosilicates. A) acidic SiO 2> 65% - both contain silica, but more quartz. When weathered. image of sands and sandy loam. B) medium = 65-44% - both f-we, but little quartz. The image is light to medium loam. B) the main< 55% - кварца в чистом виде нет. Образ тяжёл суглинки или глины. Магматич породы в своём составе имеют 59,5% полевых шпатов; 12% кварца; 16,8% амфибало; 3,8% слюды; 7,9% -прочие.
49. Metamorphic forge of rock ... The image from sedimentary or igneous rocks by means of them is modified under the influence of high pressure and high t. If both factors act together, then the image is a granular-solonetz structure (oppression). If the action is only equal., Then the image is shale slender (shale). If only t acts, then the image is granular and slender (marble from calcide). The composition of the repetition of the composition of those miner, the cat is part of the breed.
50. Sedimentary rocks ... 1. Locally educated. A) continental B) marine. 2. By way of education. A) debris or mechanical, the image in the cut is accumulated by various debris (sand). B) chemical rocks, the image of which is crystallized salts (calcareous tuff). C) organic and organogenic (oil). For most rocks, the texture is complex - the result is delayed for a long time. Sedimentary rocks can be loose or compacted, dense (pebbles). Nekot. dense rocks in dry state, they will soften in water. Sedimentary rocks may contain fossilized remains of living and plant., their traces.
51. Types and factors weathered ... - a set of processes of changes in rocks and their minerals under the influence of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Bark weathered-i- horizons of rocks where weathered. Phys. weathered - crushing of rocks and minerals without changing the chemical. comp. Factors - high temperatures, water, freezing of water, salt = increase in volume = destruction - the rock allows air and water to pass through. Chemical wind- chem. change and destruction of rocks and minerals with the formation of new minerals (secondary). Factors - water (hydrolysis, hydration) and carbon dioxide, oxygen (oxidation). As a result, the physical state changes. minerals and destruction. their lattice = new minerals, cohesion, moisture capacity, absorb ability. Stages weathered: 1. Clastic. 2. carbonatization. 3. The formation of kaolin after completing the stage of kaolinization, characteristic for a temperate climate. 4. Stage of baxitization in tropical and subtropical. climate. Resistant to weathered quartz, and unstable sedimentary rocks (porosity) and micas. Eluvial bark weathering - residual products of weathering. Residual formations of different composition in the upper layer of the lithosphere. Accumulative crust weathered - displaced by water, wind, ice, products are weathered. Rukhlyak is a product weathered, it possesses. absorbs ability with respect to cations, anions and water. Shows signs of fertility (soluble salts). Eluvium - physical weathered, not sorted, chem. and the mineral composition is similar to that of the rock.
52. Intensity manifested weathered ... Finishing with kaolin formation. stage of kaolinization, characteristic for a temperate climate. Baxitization stage in the tropical. and subtropical. climate. Rukhlyak is a weathered product, it possesses. Absorb. ability to rel. to cations, anions and water. Shows signs of fertility (soluble salts). Eluvium - physical weathered, not sorted, chem. and a miner. the composition is similar to the breed. The food is weathered. do not remain in place, undergo denudation and accumulation.
53. Strength of silicates ... Ionic type radical. It is based on silicon-oxygen. tetrahydr. The radicals are connected to each other at the vertices In 2 ways : 1. Through a cation - a weak ionic bond; 2. Through common oxygen - strong covalent bond. Crystal lattice types ... 1. Island-silicon-oxygen. tetrahydra are connected at all 4 vertices with each other through a cation, the bond is not strong, there are no such in the soil (olivine). 2. Chain-link. through O 2, forming chains. The chains are interconnected through a cation; in the soil there is no (augite). 3. Ribbon - 2 chains are connected through a common O 2, forming a ribbon, through a cation between themselves, no (hornblende). 4. Layer (sheet) - n number of chains interconnected by O 2, forming layers, and layers - by cations (talc - no, mica - yes). 5. Frame - tight packing of tetrahydra. with predominantly covalent bonds (feldspar - yes). Wireframe slender has quartz. He has all covalent bonds, chemical. do not destroy.
54. Surface water activities .Surface water denudation factor - a set of destruction processes. and demolition destroyed. materials. Sources - precipitation. They flow down the slopes, breaking the connections. Washing off mineral particles = soil loses fertility, ravines and gullies = soil cultivation becomes difficult, groundwater level goes down. Influence f - climate, vegetation, relief, HMS, exposure, soil structure (structureless and easily washed off). activity- forest planting, embankments, ditching, unmanned soil cultivation. Deluvium: layering, sorting, porosity, looseness, clays and loams, chem. the composition is similar to the breed.
55. River activities. Rivers. - low water - little water, high water - a lot, high water - high water level.< у берегов,т.к. трение,Vтеч >in the narrowing of the river, Vflow> at the depth => the bottom of the destruction>. Depends on the HMS of the rock. Erosion basis- the lowest point where the flowing water rushes. The limiting runoff curve is the line when the erosion in depth ends. Having processed the bottom, the river destroyed. the coast. Alluvium-layering, sorting, org in-in, pit in-va, different HMS.
56. People of the Glacier ... Glaciers are image due to the accumulated snow and its further transformed. As it grows. ice glacier starts to move. When moving. the glacier breaks off and carries with it the fragments of its bed: from small clayey to fragments of rocks. This material, the cat carries the glacier - madder: final, basic. With a long, stationary position of the glacier, its weighty material has accumulated. at the bottom of the glacier, forming the ultimate madder. Their height can reach several meters. When quickly retreated. The glacier shafts of terminal madder are not an image, but an image of a new madder in the form of longitudinal oxen. Postponed. glaciers are of different granulometric. composition: boulder loams and clays, sandy loam, sands. These breeds are not sorted. By chem. composition - carbonate-free - acidic soils. Boulder loams have a brown or red-brown color - low permeability, low absorbability.
57. Water glaciers ... When the glacier melts, there is an image of a watercourse system, the cat washes away the madder sediments and sorts them along the way. Loam, sand, clay, sandy loam - different granulometric. composition. The glacier-water is deposited. khar-sya: sorted, layered, mostly carbonate-free, loams are more permeable to water. Covering loams are also carbonate.
58. Loess and Loess Deferred ... - highly graded, high-carbonate. 4 hypotheses. origin: 1. Wind (Mongolia, China, Middle Asia). 2. As a result of the activity of water-glaciers streams (center and southern. Regions). 3. Pavlov's hypothesis - by the dolluvial route. 4. Hypothesis of soil origin - loess is a product of weathering and soil formations. in condition. dry climate. Moreover, any rock can turn into it, in the presence of carbonates.
