The costs of the enterprise for production and sale. The cost of production and sales of products. The costs of production and sale of products are the aggregate of the costs of enterprises expressed in monetary form for production and sale

Many enterprises not only manufacture products in the required quantity, assortment and quality that meet the needs of the consumer, but also provide commercial activities for the sale of finished products. In the conditions of market relations, its role is increasing, tasks are becoming more complicated.

For the organization of commercial activities for the sale of finished products at the enterprises, a sales service is created.

The main tasks of the sales service are to study demand and establish close contacts with consumers of products; search for the most effective channels and forms of implementation that meet the requirements of consumers; ensuring the delivery of products to the consumer at the right time; control over the progress of product sales in order to reduce commercial (non-production) costs and accelerate the turnover of working capital.

The sold products are the products of the enterprise shipped to the customer, accepted and paid for by the enterprise, the funds for which were transferred to the supplier's account.

The volume of sales of products is determined either by the shipment of products to customers, or by payment (revenue). It can be expressed in comparable, planned and current prices. In a market economy, this indicator is of paramount importance. The sale of products is the link between production and the consumer. The volume of its production depends on how the products are sold, what demand for them in the market.

The most modern product that meets the most sophisticated requirements and desires of buyers, with an attractive price for the market, will not be worth a dime if it is not offered to buyers at the right time and in the right place, i.e. when buyers would like to buy it and where they could buy it.

Distribution is an activity directly related to the physical movement of manufactured goods from producer to consumer and the transfer of ownership of these goods to him.

The company can deliver the goods to the end consumer, organizing and providing the process of movement on its own or by involving other organizations, as well as individuals.

The distribution channel is a set of enterprises, organizations, firms, as well as persons that ensure the movement of goods and the transfer of ownership of it from the manufacturer to the consumer. The sale of goods in most cases is carried out through intermediaries. With the help of intermediaries, it is possible to reduce the number of direct contacts between manufacturers and consumers of products (Scheme 2).

Supply and sales organizations, large wholesale bases, exchange structures, trading houses and shops can act as intermediaries.

Scheme 2. The role of an intermediary in changing the structure and number of connections between the producer and the consumer

The main purpose of distribution is to ensure the movement of the right goods to the right place and at the right time with the lowest possible costs of material, financial, labor resources and time. Currently, the company has a wide arsenal of means of delivering products from manufacturer to consumer. Organization of product sales is based on marketing research, which is the basis of all marketing activities. Such research in the field of sales is a study of the needs and demand for a given product, a study of market capacity, determination of the company's share in the total volume of sales of a given range of products, an analysis of the market situation, a study of the possibilities of entering a foreign market, a study of the dynamics of sales, an analysis of distribution channels, a study customer opinions and consumer preferences.

Marketing research is the basis for the implementation of all elements of the company's activities in the field of sales management.

Let's determine what place is occupied by sales management in the marketing service of an enterprise for various types of its organization.

Organization "by function" means that both foreign markets and manufactured goods are considered in the form of some homogeneity, provides for the creation of specialized departments, including sales management. Such a structure is advisable if the company has few products and markets.

Organization "by types of goods" requires specific conditions of production, sales, service in connection with a variety of goods. It creates groups of workers dealing with "their" product. A functional sales service is created in relation to a specific product. This ensures that all aspects of marketing are properly considered. However, with such an organization, duplication of research and sales functions is possible, and weak ties between groups of the same department can lead to the fact that creative discoveries will not be disseminated just because they are "alien".

Organizing "by markets" requires specialized knowledge of product service for a specific industry or segment of customers from different industries. It distinguishes groups of workers involved in "their" group of consumers. For example, the company manufactures diesel engines for tractors, cars and ships. Each of the groups of consumers of these goods is so specific that this specificity must be taken into account when organizing sales, as well as in the entire scope of marketing activities.

Organization "by territories" allows you to take into account the specifics of the consumption of goods in each of the regions, the inhabitants of which are similar in demographic and cultural characteristics. It is considered beneficial when in each of the selected regions the range of goods is not very large, and the differences between their consumers are insignificant.

The structure of the sales service in the enterprises should be in line with the marketing strategy. It depends on the level of concentration (scale) and specialization of production, the territorial location of the enterprise and the degree of economic independence of its divisions, on the characteristics of the products, in particular for production purposes, individual (short- or long-term) consumption, on the nature and conditions of the enterprise.

The structure of the sales service includes both management and production departments. Management divisions include sales departments (groups, bureaus). The sales department may include the following bureaus (groups, sectors): orders, demand studies, planning, commodity (operational), contractual claims, export, advertising, installation, commissioning and maintenance of supplied products.

Production units include warehouses for finished products, workshops (sections) for picking, preserving and packaging finished products, manufacturing packaging containers, expeditions and shipment.

Distinguish between centralized and decentralized sales service. In a centralized form, the warehouse is administratively subordinate directly to the head of the sales department. In a decentralized form, the sales department is separated from finished goods warehouses.

For each specific enterprise, it is important to determine the boundaries of rational centralization of sales activities, establish a clear relationship between the sales service and all divisions (services, departments) of the enterprise, eliminate duplication of functions, and clearly delineate responsibilities within the sales service itself.

Sales planning includes: the study of external and internal conditions; defining goals; development of forecasts for market conditions and demand; preparation of forecasts for the sale of goods; drawing up plans for the supply of finished products; planning of optimal economic relations; selection of product distribution channels; planning of additional services, foreign trade operations, advertising activities; drawing up an estimate of the costs of sales and distribution management, planning of profitability.

Sales organization includes: organizing the collection of information about demand; concluding business contracts with consumers for the supply of products; choice of forms and methods of selling products, methods of delivering it to the consumer; preparation of products for shipment to the consumer; technology of commodity circulation; organization of information and dispatch service, reporting; organization of trade communication, legal and claims work; organizing demand stimulation and advertising activities.

Control and coordination of the work of the sales service personnel involves: assessment of the compliance of the implementation of sales functions with the marketing research program; analysis of the actions of the sales service, as well as the developed measures to coordinate sales activities and increase their efficiency; monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of sales promotion and promotional activities; tactical control; control over the supply of products, the implementation of foreign trade operations, compliance with contractual obligations, the timely payment of invoices; adjustment of the production program in accordance with the orders received; presentation of claims to consumers for breach of contractual obligations and late payment of bills.

The initial stage of sales planning (as well as others in the system of marketing activities of the enterprise) is the study of external and internal conditions for the functioning of the enterprise. Depending on changes in external conditions, it becomes necessary to adjust the internal ones.

The existing problems associated with the sale of products are identified, goals are set, the achievement of which will contribute to their solution. Such goals can be: achievement of a certain amount of income, sales volume, sales market share and wholesale turnover in terms of assortment; establishment of optimal economic ties; improving the efficiency of sales personnel; optimization of stocks of finished products; the effectiveness of additional services provided to the consumer; rationalization of commodity circulation; increasing the effectiveness of claims work; selection of optimal sales channels; minimization of transportation costs; optimization of all types of sales costs; increasing the profitability of foreign trade transactions of the enterprise; strengthening the effectiveness of the advertising policy of the enterprise; stimulating customer demand. The list of goals can be different both in different enterprises and in different periods in the same enterprise.

Sales activities presuppose the presence of: trade communication of the enterprise, i.e. transmission of trade information from one consumer to another. Trade communication should include all forms of influence, ensure the targeted transfer of commercial information to interested parties. Its purpose is to convey information about a product through all channels of its promotion in order to form a favorable attitude towards the enterprise that produces it.

Trade communication is carried out through: demonstration of the product to trade representatives, intermediaries, trade and purchasing organizations, consumer enterprises and other interested parties; conferences (trade, scientific and practical, etc.), fairs; commercial correspondence and newsletters; advertisements, catalogs, exhibition materials, etc.

The success of the enterprise depends on the preparedness of the sales staff, the formation of which is difficult and expensive. Our "salesmen" need to learn how to sell in market conditions. The salesperson (traveling salesman) must be able to create a situation in which the client himself would like to conduct a conversation.

There are a number of main points that must be taken into account when preparing negotiations with a client: make an appointment in advance, set the time for negotiations, determine the interests and needs of the client; be able to make assumptions, substantiate the advantages of the product, the benefits of the client, inspire confidence in the company and in the transaction, induce to buy products and conclude a transaction.

An important condition for successful negotiations is that the seller has the necessary documentation (brochures, catalogs, brochures, etc.), which should be prepared in such a way as to instantly attract the attention of the client and interest him in the transaction. Their quality reflects the culture of the enterprise, therefore it must be prepared by professionals. Important criteria for this are: the material from which the advertising products are made; decoration; information about the product and its areas of application; information about the company.

The traveling salesman must not only know how to sell, but also have faith in the business and its product. Without a strong belief in the need for these three ingredients of success, the salesperson will not be able to convince the customer. Conviction breeds enthusiasm, which in turn makes success possible.

In a rapidly changing market situation, for the correct orientation of buyers in the variety of goods, especially fundamentally new ones, objective information is needed about their consumer characteristics, as well as about places and forms of sale, i.e. advertising of goods and services. With the help of advertising, the awareness of the population is raised, the number of purchases increases, and its influence on the formation of needs and demand is enhanced.

Participation in exhibitions, screenings, demonstrations, prototype exhibitions, fairs, shopping and press conferences allows you to implement the communicative function of advertising. Maintaining the required level of communication is a guarantee of timely response to changes in external conditions.

Production and sales costs represent a set of expenditures of enterprises expressed in monetary form for the production and sale of products (works, services). They ensure the continuity of production and create conditions for the sale of products.

In terms of their economic content, they express the costs of society, since production is carried out in the interests of society, and products are produced as a direct social product. The costs are different in composition and structure, depending on the sectoral affiliation of enterprises. They are also classified according to the method of attribution to the cost price, the relationship with the volume of production, the degree of homogeneity.

Depending on from the method of attribution to the cost of production they are divided into:

- straight lines, associated with the production of certain types of products that can be directly and directly included in the cost (raw materials, basic materials, wages of production workers, etc.);

- indirect, associated with the production of various products that cannot be attributed to the cost of a certain type of product (costs of maintaining and operating equipment, repairing buildings, salaries of engineers and technicians, etc.).

They are included in the cost price using special methods defined by industry guidelines for planning, accounting and costing.

Depending on from the relationship of costs with the volume of production allocate:

- conditionally fixed costs- these are expenses whose value does not change significantly with an increase or decrease in the volume of production, as a result of which their relative value per unit of production changes (costs for heating, lighting, salaries of management personnel, depreciation deductions, expenses for administrative and economic needs, etc.). );

- conditionally variable costs the value of which depends on the volume of production, they increase or decrease in accordance with the change in the volume of output (costs of raw materials, basic materials, fuel, basic wages of production personnel, etc.).

By the degree of homogeneity of costs are subdivided into:
- elementary;

Complex.

Elements have the same economic content regardless of their purpose. The purpose of grouping by elements is to identify the costs of manufacturing products by their types (material costs, depreciation deductions, etc.). The relationship between the individual cost elements is the structure of the cost of manufacturing a product.

Complex costs include several elements and, therefore, are heterogeneous in composition. They are united for a specific economic purpose. Such costs are general plant costs, losses from rejects, costs for the maintenance and operation of equipment, etc.

All costs for the production and sale of products are full cost price. The composition of costs included in the cost of products (works, services) is currently determined by a government decree.

Cost of products (works, services) represents a cost estimate of natural resources, raw materials, materials, fuel, energy, fixed assets, labor resources, as well as other costs for its production and sale, used in the production process of products (works, services).

According to the economic content, the costs included in the cost of products (works, services) are grouped according to the following elements: material costs; labor costs; deductions for social needs; depreciation of fixed assets; other costs.

1.Material costs include : the cost of purchased raw materials and materials, fuel; main auxiliary materials; components and semi-finished products; container; spare parts for repair; MBE and other costs. The cost of material resources is made up of the prices of their acquisition.

2.Labor costs include: payment of wages; payment of bonuses; annual performance remuneration; compensatory and incentive payments; the cost of free meals; lump sum remuneration for seniority; payment for study leave; non-staff salaries and other payments included in the payroll.

Labor costs do not include: labor costs in the form of bonuses paid out of special funds; targeted receipts; material aid; interest-free home improvement loans; payment of additional leave for women raising children; supplements to pensions; dividends on shares; subscription and purchase of goods for personal needs of employees; payment of travel to the place of work; payment for vouchers, excursions, travel; other costs incurred from the profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise.

3.0 social contributions include contributions to the compulsory social insurance fund, the Pension Fund, the State Employment Fund (currently abolished), and the Compulsory Health Insurance Fund.

4. Depreciation of fixed assets includes depreciation charges for the full restoration of fixed assets, the amount of which is determined on the basis of their book value and the current depreciation rates. If the company operates on a lease basis, then this section provides amortization deductions for the full restoration of its own and leased fixed assets.

Other costs include: some types of taxes; deductions to insurance funds (reserves); remuneration for inventions and rationalization proposals; travel costs; payment for communication services; rental fees; depreciation of intangible assets, deductions to the repair fund, etc.

7. Planning the costs of production and sales of products

The volume of costs for the products sold does not coincide with the volume of costs for the production of products:

Cost of products sold = Cost of production + Cost of sales

Sales costs (sales) are attributed only to that part of the product that is sold, and not in warehouses.

The main task of cost planning is to ensure the most efficient use of resources, as well as to achieve financial results.

A product is considered finished if it has passed all stages of production and has an appropriate mark (Quality Control Department) or a certificate. The products may not leave the workshop, but having the appropriate quality mark, they are considered finished.

When calculating the stock rate, the following time periods must be taken into account:

products must be prepared for sale; for this you need:

a) packing time;
b) marking;
c) the products must be prepared according to the directions of shipment (routing).

a simplified method of rationing - for calculating terms, you can use shipment contracts, you can calculate the total number of shipments and, thus, find the interval with which products will be shipped (rate in days).

The calculation of the norm is carried out in the context of the established assortment. To calculate the standard, all the norms calculated for individual types of products are summed up.

When organizing accounting, production costs, enterprises use the provision on the composition of costs included in the cost of products (work or services), approved by the Government of the Russian Federation. The cost of production includes the costs associated with the use in the production process of natural resources, raw materials, materials, fuel, energy, labor resources and other costs for its production and sale.

The cost of production does not include costs and losses attributable to the Profit and Loss account: the costs of canceled orders, the maintenance of mothballed production facilities, legal costs, fines and losses from the write-off of bad debts.

8 ... The concept of proceeds from the sale of products

Revenue from sales of products - funds received by the enterprise for products, works and services shipped to counterparties. Timely and complete receipt of proceeds is the most important condition for the successful financial and economic activities of any enterprise, since it is the main and regular source of funds. On the other hand, the process of the circulation of funds at the enterprise ends with the sale of products and the receipt of proceeds, which in itself means the reimbursement of the financial resources spent on production and serves as a prerequisite for the resumption of the production process by advancing funds in the next circuit.

The proceeds received on the settlement account of the enterprise are immediately used to pay invoices of suppliers of raw materials, materials, components, semi-finished products, spare parts, fuel, energy. From the proceeds, taxes are deducted to the budget, salaries are paid, the depreciation of fixed assets is reimbursed, the expenses provided for by the financial plan are financed and are not included in the cost price. At the same time, revenue in the strict sense is not income, since it is necessary to reimburse costs from it.

9. Planning revenue from product sales. Revenue growth factors

Revenue planning is necessary to determine the profit plan from sales, calculate the amounts of planned payments to the budget (profit tax, VAT, excise tax and other payments). The reality of the main source of cash inflow and projected profit largely depends on the validity of its calculation.

Direct profit planning method

The method of direct calculation of the planned profit from the sale of commercial products is also called the method of assortment calculation. To do this, you need to know the planned assortment of products, the planned unit cost of the product and the selling price. Most often, this method is used when calculating profits in associations (enterprises) and industries with a small range of products and subject to planning the cost of production for each type (timber, coal, etc.).

Analytical method of planning profit

Stage 1. Determination of the percentage of base profitability for the reporting year. It is necessary to determine the expected profit for the reporting period.

Stage 2. Determination of profit from the sale of comparable marketable products for the coming period, based on the percentage of base profitability.

However, this profit takes into account only the change in one factor - the volume of sales.

Stage 3. Calculation of the influence of individual factors on the profit from the sale of comparable marketable products in the coming period.

The main factors are:

price changes in the coming period;
changes in tax rates;
shifts in product structure;
change in the cost of goods sold.

The method for determining the effect of this factor on profit is generally similar to the method for determining the effect on profit of changes in prices of the current year, but the difference is that an adjustment to profit is made for the period of validity of new prices in the coming year.

To determine the impact of shifts in the structure of products, it is necessary to determine the average coefficients of profitability of products for the expiring year and for the coming year.

Stage 4. Determination of profit for an incomparable part of marketable products.

This profit can be determined in two ways and is calculated only for those products that will be produced from the coming year:

direct counting method - in cases where the range of products is limited;
simplified method.

10. Use of proceeds from the sale of products

The proceeds are used primarily to pay invoices of suppliers of raw materials, materials, purchased semi-finished products, components, etc. The remainder of the proceeds after reimbursement of the cost of expended material resources and reimbursement of amortization of non-current assets forms gross income, from which, first of all, funds spent on wages are reimbursed. The funds remaining after this constitute the net income of the enterprise, allocated to pay taxes attributable to the financial result of activities and the formation of profits.

11. Economic essence and functions of profit

According to its economic content, profit expresses in monetary terms a part of the value of the surplus product. It has a number of functions.

1. Evaluation function- lies in the fact that it most fully reflects the level of production and provides an assessment of the effectiveness of economic activities of the entire enterprise.

2.Stimulating function- lies in the fact that the stimulating effect on the growth of the efficiency of the organization.

Fiscal function- concludes that profit is a source of contributions to the state budget and extra-budgetary funds.

The main role of profit is to show the final financial results, which characterizes the efficiency of production, as well as the quality and demand for manufactured products. It reflects the level of income of the enterprise. Every entrepreneur makes sure that the level of profit of his company does not decrease. However, the level of profit and its change is influenced by a lot of factors that do not always directly depend on the company itself.

12. Profit planning. Factors of its growth.

An important place in financial planning is the profit planning stage. This part of planning uses all the parameters of the business plan and is decisive in determining the financial result from all activities of the organization (enterprise). Profit planning approaches depend on the parameters of the production, economic and financial activities of the organization (enterprise). It is necessary to study the most significant relationships in the economy of the enterprise and understand their influence on the size of profit. This will help you better understand the factors that affect its growth.

Profit planning is carried out separately for all types of activities of the organization (enterprise). Separate planning is due to differences in the methodology for calculating and taxing profits from various activities. In the process of developing financial plans, all factors affecting the size of profit are taken into account, and financial results from the adoption of various management decisions are modeled.

Profit planning uses the following methods:

Direct account;

Analytical;

On the basis of the effect of production (operating) leverage;

Based on budgeting.

1. Direct counting method. V it is based on the assortment calculation of profits from the production and sale of products. A simpler version of this method is the aggregated calculation of plan items.

2. Analytical method. This method is used with minor changes in the range of products. It is used in the absence of inflationary growth in prices and costs. When using the analytical method, the calculation is carried out separately for comparable and incomparable marketable products. Comparable products is produced in the base year that precedes the planned one, therefore its actual total cost and production volume are known.

3. The method based on the effect of the production (non-cutting) lever (CVP-analysis). This profit planning method is based on the principle of dividing costs into fixed and variable costs. Using this data, the profit margin is calculated.

Profit planning methods should be studied in detail. It is very important for commercial organizations (enterprises) to determine the cost recovery threshold, after which they will begin to make a profit. Here you need to use the method of operational (production) leverage. Using this method, you can set a break-even point, i.e. the amount of revenue at which the organization (enterprise) will fully cover its costs, receiving neither profit nor loss.

4. Method based on budgeting. On the basis of budgeting, computer-oriented models of financial planning of profit are developed. The profit planning algorithm is based on the stage-by-stage preparation of the initial data for financial planning. Here the interconnection of organizational, production and financial planning is carried out.

The main factors of profit growth for firms and organizations in a modern market economy:

Product quality improvement factor and customer orientation. From the point of view of production efficiency, it is more important to focus on improving the quality of products than to fight only for a simple reduction in production costs.
The increase in sales turnover is associated with a constant increase in customer-consumers (strengthening of positions in existing markets, conquering new markets).
The factor of the firm's position in the market, the preservation and development of competitive advantages. For example, Toyota is constantly striving to maintain its leadership among other companies in terms of vehicle reliability.
The factor of the rate of development of scientific research and experimental - design developments (R&D). The implementation of R&D results allows you to reduce costs, improve product quality, promote the emergence of new science-intensive products and, ultimately, strengthen your position in the competition.
The factor of the level of organization of production and management.
The factor of creating conditions for the most complete implementation and continuous development of the "human factor", "human capital", increasing the interest of employees in the affairs of the company.

13. Enterprise profitability

The profitability of an enterprise is an indicator of the efficiency with which fixed assets are used, calculated as the ratio of profit to the average cost of fixed assets, as well as current assets.

The profit and profitability of the enterprise are directly interconnected.

Profit is an economic category that expresses production and economic relations arising from the formation and subsequent use of the product produced. In the real sector, profit takes material form in the form of cash, resources, funds and benefits.

If the company makes any profit, then it is profitable. The profitability indicators used in the calculations reflect the relative profitability. The analysis of the financial stability of the enterprise is based on the analysis of these indicators. To assess the effectiveness and economic feasibility of the operation of the enterprise, absolute and relative indicators are taken.

Absolute indicators make it possible to analyze the dynamics of profit indicators for certain years. At the same time, to obtain more reliable results, the indicators are calculated taking into account inflation.

Relative indicators represent options for the ratio of profit and capital invested in production (profit and production costs). Therefore, they are not so susceptible to inflation.

The absolute amount of profit does not always give a correct idea of the level of profitability of a particular enterprise, since it is influenced by both the quality of work and the scale of activities. In this regard, for a more accurate description of the work of the enterprise, they use not only the absolute amount of profit, but also a relative indicator called the level of profitability.

These indicators should be considered in comparison with other time periods, since this allows one to judge the dynamics of the enterprise's development.

The profitability of an enterprise characterizes the level of profitability or unprofitableness of production. The very indicators of profitability are the relative characteristics of the results of financial growth and the effectiveness of the organization. They reflect the relative profitability of a firm or enterprise, which is measured as a percentage of the cost of capital from different positions.

The most important characteristics of the actual environment in which the profit and income of the enterprise are formed are profitability indicators. They are used in the comparative analysis and assessment of the financial condition of the company.

The main indicators of profitability are: profitability of the company's products, return on equity and overall profitability.

Product profitability is a reflection of the ratio of profit per unit of product sold. This indicator increases with an increase in product prices with constant production costs or a decrease in production costs while maintaining constant cents for products sold.

The return on equity shows the efficiency of using all the property at the disposal of the enterprise.

The overall profitability (profitability of the enterprise) expresses the ratio of the balance sheet profit to the average value of fixed assets, as well as standardized working capital. This ratio of funds to costs shows the profitability of the enterprise. In other words, the level of total profitability, reflecting the increase in invested capital, is equal to the profit generated before interest, multiplied by 100% and divided by assets.

Overall profitability is a key metric used to analyze profitability. To more accurately determine the development of the organization, two more indicators are calculated: the profitability of production turnover and the number of turnover of assets.

The profitability of turnover is equal to the dependence of gross proceeds on costs. The turnover of capital is equal to the ratio of gross proceeds to the amount of capital.

14. Economic content of working capital

Working capital can be identified with working capital.

In the balance sheet, current assets are balance sheet assets, and working capital is balance sheet liabilities (what amount of capital is invested in economic activity).

Working capital is the amount of financial sources required to form the working assets of an enterprise.

Working capital serve the process of the current household. activities and at the same time participate in the production process and in the process of selling products.

The main purpose is to ensure the continuity and rhythm of the production process.

Working capital is fully involved in the production process, changing its shape and value

By functional purpose, working capital is divided into:

1. Working and production assets:

· Subjects of labor

Labor tools

· Productive reserves

· Unfinished production

· Future spending

2. Circulation funds consist of:

Finished products

· Money

Working capital, as an element of financing, is not spent, is not consumed, but is advanced in various types of current costs of the enterprise. The purpose of the advance is to create the necessary material stocks entering production -> release and sale of products -> cash -> accession to the capital of the enterprise, i.e. the advance capital is reimbursed.

Working capital is a set of funds advanced for the creation and use of working capital and circulation funds.

In the process of circulation, circulating capital goes through three stages and there is the following formula for the movement of circulating capital:

D-T ... T-P-T '... T'-D'

Where D - money, T - goods, P - production, T'-finished product, D '- sales.

The difference between D and D 'shows the efficiency of the enterprise, as a result, profit.

15. Fundamentals of the organization of working capital, their composition and structure

Organization of working capital at the enterprise includes determining the need for working capital, their composition, structure, sources of formation, as well as regulation and management of the use of working capital.

One of the basic principles of organizing working capital is rationing The implementation of this principle makes it possible to establish the required amount of working capital in an economically reasonable manner and thereby provide conditions for the successful implementation of their functions. The erroneous practice of refusing to standardize working capital is one of the reasons for the crisis in the economy, a drop in production and violations of payment and settlement discipline.

Thus, the process of developing economically justified amounts of circulating assets necessary for organizing the normal operation of an enterprise is called rationing of circulating assets.

Stocks of inventories, values of the enterprise are calculated in days of stock in kind and in monetary terms.

The working capital ratio is the following amount:

N ob.s = N pr.z + N NP + N GP + N rbp,

where N PR.Z - the standard of production stocks;

Н NP - standard of work in progress;

Н ГП - standard of finished goods stocks;

N rbp is the standard for deferred expenses.

The most important principle of the correct organization of working capital is their use strictly for their intended purpose... Violation of this principle by diverting advanced working capital from production turnover to cover losses, all kinds of losses due to mismanagement, to pay excessive bank interest on loans, to tax payments to the budget, etc. , as already noted, to a crisis of payment and settlement discipline, the growth of huge debts to suppliers for supplied raw materials and finished products, workers and employees - on wages, the budget - on tax payments.

An important principle of organizing working capital is ensuring their safety, rational use and acceleration of turnover.

In practice, a significant part of our enterprises do not comply with this principle, which has an extremely negative effect on their economic activities.

16. Indicators of the efficiency of using working capital

Each company has current assets as part of its assets. To finance them, the company uses certain sources, which together are called working capital. The company should strive to improve the efficiency of the use of working capital. This is necessary in order to maximize the efficiency of the economic activity of the enterprise as a whole. The use of working capital is characterized by three coefficients: turnover, turnover in days and load.

Working capital turnover ratio shows how many turns are made by circulating assets for the analyzed period (quarter, half year, year). Determined by the formula Kob = = VP / OSr, where Vfi - the volume of sales of products for the reporting period; OSR - the average balance of working capital for the reporting period.

Duration of one turnover in days shows how long it takes the company to return its working capital in the form of proceeds from the sale of products: D = T / Kob or D = T x OSr / VP, where T- the number of days in the reporting period.

Funds loading ratio in turnover characterizes the amount of circulating assets advanced by 1 ruble. proceeds from the sale of products. Thus, this indicator represents the working capital intensity, or the cost of working capital to obtain 1 ruble. products sold: Kz = OSr / VP x 100, where Kz is the utilization factor of funds in circulation (that is, the reciprocal of the turnover rate), kopecks; 100 - conversion factor of rubles to kopecks.

The less Kz, the more efficiently the working capital is used at the enterprise, the better its financial position.

Release of working capital as a result of the acceleration of their turnover is determined by the formula DO = Oo - Opl, where DO is the amount of released circulating assets, Oo is the need for circulating assets in the planning period (provided that there is no acceleration of their turnover), rubles; Opl - the need for working capital in the planning period, taking into account the acceleration of their turnover, rubles.

The release of working capital can be absolute and relative.

Absolute release takes place if the actual balances of working capital are less than the standard or the balances of the previous period while maintaining or converting the volume of sales for the period under review.

Relative release working capital takes place in cases where the acceleration of their turnover occurs simultaneously with an increase in the volume of output, and the growth rate of the volume of production outstrips the growth rate of the balances of working capital.

As indicators of the efficiency of the use of working capital, indicators of the efficiency of the use of material resources can be considered. This is due to the fact that the production inventories of the enterprise constitute, as a rule, a significant proportion of the working capital.

17. Financial services of the enterprise

The financial service of an enterprise is understood as an independent structural unit that performs certain functions in the enterprise management system. This is usually the finance department. Its structure and number depend on the organizational and legal form of the enterprise, the nature of economic activity, the volume of production and the total number of employees at the enterprise.

The nature of economic activity and the volume of production determine the amount of money turnover, the number of payment documents associated with settlements with other enterprises - suppliers and buyers (customers), with commercial banks, other creditors, and the budget. The number of employees affects the volume of cash transactions and settlements with workers and employees.

The main areas of financial work at the enterprise are financial planning, operational and control and analytical work.

In small businesses, financial work may be performed by the financial sector as part of the finance and sales department or accounting department. In large enterprises, the finance department consists of several groups (bureaus), which are assigned certain functions. The head of the department reports directly to the management of the enterprise (see diagram 1.1).

The given structure of the financial department as a whole corresponds to the content of the financial work that must be performed at the enterprise in order to finance all the costs of the enterprise and make settlements. But it largely conserves the shortcomings inherent in enterprise management in the previous pre-market economic conditions.

18. Financial planning at the enterprise

Planning is one of the most important processes on which the efficiency of the company depends.

Scheduling is a management function. The essence of this process lies in the logical determination of the development of the enterprise, setting goals for any sector of activity and the work of each structural unit, which is necessary in modern conditions. In the implementation of planning, tasks are set, material, labor and financial means for their achievement and deadlines are determined, as well as the sequence of their implementation.

In addition, factors that have an impact on the development of the enterprise's activities are analyzed and identified, for their timely prevention at the stage of occurrence in the event of their negative impact.

Thus, we can say that planning as a management function means the desire to take into account in advance all external and internal factors that provide suitable conditions for the normal functioning and development of the enterprise. It also determines the development of a set of measures that establish the sequence of achieving specific goals, taking into account the possibilities of the most effective use of resources by each production unit and all enterprises. Therefore, planning is designed to ensure the relationship between the individual structural units of the enterprise, which contain the entire technological chain. Such activity is based on the detection and forecasting of consumer demand, analysis and assessment of available resources and prospects for the development of the conjuncture. From this follows the necessary linkage of planning with marketing and control for the constant adjustment of production and sales indicators in connection with changes in market demand. Planning covers both the current and future time periods and is carried out in the form of forecasting and programming.

The planning process implies the setting of certain goals, the development of measures to achieve these goals, as well as the company's policy for the long term.

For management, planning is a stage on which development largely depends.

The planning is greatly influenced by the literacy of the management, the qualifications of the specialists involved in this process, the sufficiency of the resources necessary for the implementation of the process (computer equipment, etc.), the information base.

Of course, sometimes the factors influencing the planning process at the enterprise depend on the specifics of the activity, on the regional affiliation, but in the presence of qualified personnel and competent management, all shortcomings can be eliminated in a short time.

19. Fixed capital of the enterprise

The fixed capital of an enterprise is a part of the productive capital, which fully and repeatedly takes part in the production of goods, transfers its value to a new product in parts, over a number of periods. Fixed capital includes that part of the advanced capital that was spent on the construction of buildings, structures, on the purchase of machinery, equipment, and tools.

After the sale of the goods, the fixed capital is returned in cash to the entrepreneur in parts. Fixed capital is subject to physical and moral deterioration.

Physical depreciation is the gradual loss of use value by fixed capital, which is gradually transferred to the product, and is returned in parts in the form of depreciation. Obsolescence occurs due to the growth of labor productivity and technical progress and leads to the renewal of fixed capital before it wears out physically.

Fixed capital is money invested in fixed assets. It changes its material form and goes through the following stages:
investment(monetary form - fixed assets) - into real assets - buildings, structures, machinery and equipment, etc., and not into financial assets - stocks, bonds.
production(material - material form), consumption in the form of depreciation. The process of the gradual transfer of the value of the means of labor, in proportion to their physical and moral wear and tear, to the product produced with their help; the use of special funds - depreciation deductions, included in the costs of production and circulation, for a simple and extended reproduction of fixed assets;
reimbursement: the accrued depreciation is converted into a monetary form (cost price, revenue). This money is used to purchase equipment again.
The share capital includes:
fixed assets- part of the property used as a means of labor in the production of products, performance of work or provision of services, or for the management of the organization for a period exceeding 12 months or a normal operating cycle if it exceeds 12 months. The structure of fixed assets includes land plots owned by the organization, objects of nature management (this is the monetary value of the fixed assets and material assets with a long service life);
unfinished long-term investment- the costs of creating, increasing the size, as well as the acquisition of non-current durable assets (over one year), not intended for sale, with the exception of long-term financial investments in government securities, securities and authorized capital of other enterprises;
long-term financial investments- investments of the organization in government securities, bonds and other securities of other organizations, in the authorized (share) capital of other organizations, as well as loans provided to other organizations;
Intangible assets... Objects of intellectual property (exclusive right to the results of intellectual activity) can be classified:
The structure of intangible assets also takes into account the business reputation of the organization and organizational costs (costs associated with the formation of a legal entity, recognized in accordance with the constituent documents as part of the contribution of participants (founders) to the authorized (pooled) capital of the organization).

Fixed assets include: buildings - a type of fixed assets, including architectural and construction objects, the purpose of which is to create conditions for work, housing, social and cultural services for the population and storage of material values; structures - objects of engineering infrastructure; workers and power machines and equipment - small pieces of capital that are used in the production of goods; measuring and regulating devices and devices, computer technology.

20. Depreciation and methods of its accrual

Depreciation(from the Middle - century lat. amortisatio - repayment) -1) gradual depreciation of assets (equipment, buildings, structures) and the transfer of their value in parts to manufactured products; 2) a decrease in the value of taxable property (by the amount of capitalized tax). Depreciation deductions- accruals with subsequent deductions, reflecting the process of gradual transfer of the cost of labor instruments as they are physically and morally worn out to the value of products, works and services produced with their help in order to accumulate funds for subsequent full recovery.

products (works, services), their classification

The costs of the enterprise, carried out in the course of economic activity, based on the economic content and intended purpose, can be combined into several independent groups:

Reproduction costs of production assets;

Expenses for social and cultural events;

Operating expenses;

Costs of production and sale of products "(works, services).

Reproduction costs of production assets ensure the continuity of production and create conditions for the sale of products. The costs of the formation and reproduction of fixed assets (creation, reconstruction, expansion and restoration of fixed assets for production purposes) are carried out at the expense of the enterprise's own funds, bank loans, and budgetary allocations. Working capital advanced for the formation of inventories, work in progress, finished goods in the warehouse and making settlements, are restored after the receipt of proceeds to the settlement account of the enterprise. The increase in working capital is carried out at the expense of the profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise and a bank loan.

Social and cultural expenditures include expenses for professional development of employees, training of personnel, improvement of social, cultural and living conditions of employees. This also includes the costs of the creation and reconstruction of fixed assets for non-production purposes, the maintenance of clubs, preschool children's institutions, recreation camps for children, the functioning of medical institutions. These are costs. those that are important for the social development of collectives are not included in the cost of production and are carried out at the expense of profit, budgetary and targeted receipts, funds of trade union organizations. income from clubs, income from parents in the form of payment for the maintenance of children in preschool institutions, etc.

Operating expenses - these are special-purpose costs. in particular - for carrying out scientific research work (R&D). invention, innovation, revaluation of fixed assets, certification of equipment, forest inventory and exploration work, etc.

The peculiarity of this group of costs is that they are long-term, unstable, not stable in size, pay off over a long period of time, and therefore are not included in the cost of production. Their purpose is to improve the quality and efficiency of production. The sources of financing for such expenses are the profit of the enterprise, budget allocations, funds received from customers for research and development. executed under contracts, funds taken into account in the cost of research.

Costs of production and sale of products (works, services) occupy the largest share in all expenses of the enterprise. They consist of the costs associated with the use in the production process of products (works, services), fixed assets, raw materials, materials, components, fuel and energy, labor and other costs. The amount of the company's profit depends on the formation of this group of expenses. The costs of the production and sale of products (works, services) are reimbursed after the completion of the circulation of funds at the expense of proceeds from sales (works, services).

Production costs are varied and are classified according to certain criteria, the main of which are: the method of attribution to the cost price, the relationship with the volume of production, the degree of cost homogeneity.

Depending on the methods of attribution to the cost of production, costs are divided into direct and indirect. At direct costs means the costs associated with the production of certain types of products, which can be directly and directly included in the cost. These are the costs of raw materials, basic materials, purchased products and semi-finished products. basic wages of production workers, etc.

To indirect includes the costs associated with the production of different products, and therefore they cannot be directly attributed to the cost of a certain type of product. These are the costs of the maintenance and operation of equipment, the maintenance and repair of buildings, the wages of auxiliary workers, engineering and technical workers, etc. Such costs are included in the cost of production using special methods determined by industry guidelines on planning accounting and calculating the cost of production ( works, services).

Depending on the relationship between costs and the volume of production, conditionally fixed and conditionally variable costs are distinguished. To conditionally constant include expenses the total value of which does not change significantly with a decrease or increase in the volume of output, as a result of which their relative value per unit of output changes. These are expenses for heating and lighting premises, salaries of management personnel, depreciation deductions, cash expenses for administrative and business needs, etc. Operating expenses depend on the volume of production. They increase or decrease in accordance with the change in the volume of production. These include the cost of raw materials and basic materials, process fuel and energy, basic wages of production workers, etc.

According to the degree of homogeneity, costs are divided into elemental and complex . Cost elements have a single economic content for a given link, regardless of their purpose. The purpose of grouping costs by elements is to identify the costs of producing products (works, services) by their types. For example, elements such as material costs, wages, depreciation of fixed assets and other costs are highlighted. The ratio between individual cost elements is the structure of costs for the production of products (works, services).

Complex costs include several cost elements, and, therefore, are heterogeneous in composition. They are united for a specific economic purpose. Such costs, for example, are general plant costs, losses from rejects, costs for the maintenance and operation of equipment, etc.

All costs for the production and sale of products (works, services) are their full cost price. Costs are charged to the cost in accordance with the Regulations on the composition of costs for the production and sale of products (works, services) included in the cost of products (works, services), and on the procedure for generating financial results taken into account when taxing profits, approved by a resolution of the Government of the Republic of Belarus.

The need to regulate the costs incurred by enterprises in the course of their economic activity by a special normative act is due to the fact that the price and profit are determined on the basis of the cost price, and therefore the profit tax. All enterprises, regardless of their organizational and legal form and forms of ownership, must be in the same position in determining their financial results.

A financial manager must know well the composition of expenses included in a specific cost element, track changes in legislation in order to competently manage the level of cost and profit, track the tax consequences of accounting decisions, and the choice of methods for performing individual work.

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The costs of the enterprise for production and sale. The cost of production and sales of products. The costs of production and sale of products are the aggregate of the costs of enterprises expressed in monetary form for production and sale

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