Geology presentations for schoolchildren. Historical geology. The principle of incompleteness of the geological record
According to G.S. Safronov,
one of the creators
modern theory
the origin of the planets,
The earth was formed from
protoplanetary
gas-dust substance,
formed by the explosion
supernovae. V
accretion
(clumping) solid
particles of protoplanetary
clouds were happening
increase in the mass of the Earth.
Growth of the Earth to the level of 99%
its real mass
lasted about 100
million years.
General information and geology and
planet earth
3
The formation of the earth's crust at the dawn of the earth
Origin and history of developmentOf the earth
Formation of the earth's crust
at the dawn of the earth
Graphic object
General information and geology and
planet earth
4
Characteristics of the Earth
2. Earth as a cosmic bodyCharacteristics of the Earth
Diameter
Weight
Density
Square
Volume
Period of circulation
- 12756 km
- 5.98x1024 kg,
- 5510 kg / m3,
- 510 mln. km2,
- 1,083x1012 km3
- 365.26 days
General information and geology and
planet earth
5
The structure and composition of the Earth
Rice. 2.5. The internal structure of the Earth (according to L.P. Zonenshain, L.A. Savostin)General information and geology and
planet earth
6
Global seismic boundaries within the Earth:
The structure and composition of the EarthGlobal seismic boundaries within the Earth:
1. Border Mohorovicic - divides
crust and mantle (12-40 km)
2. Conrad's Boundary - Divides
granite and basalt layer of the earth's crust
3. Gutenberg Border - Divides
mantle and outer core (2900 km)
4. The border between external and internal
cores - (5000-5100 km)
General information and geology and
planet earth
7
The Earth's crust is the uppermost layer of the solid Earth and differs from the underlying shells in structure and chemical composition. ZK surface formir
The Earth's crust is the topmost layer of the solid Earthand differs from the underlying shells in structure and
chemical composition.
The surface of the gearbox is formed thanks to three
influences:
1) endogenous, including tectonic and
magmatic processes that create uneven relief;
2) exogenous, causing denudation (alignment)
this relief due to the destruction and weathering of mountain
breeds and
3) sedimentation, hiding irregularities
relief of the foundation and forming the uppermost
layer of the earth's crust. Earth's crust
There are two main types of ZK:
"basalt" oceanic and "granite" - continental.
Deep structure of the oceanic crust
Oceanic crust - three layers stand outLayer 1 - sedimentary,
represented by carbonate
sediments deposited
at the depths< 4 км или
clays. Nsr - about 0.5 km,
up to 10-15 km.
Layer 2 in the upper part - pillow lavas of tholeiitic basalts (layer 2A).
Below layer 2B are dikes of the same composition. Total H = 1.5-2 km.
Layer 3 - gabbro lies below. H = 4.7-5 km.
The total Nok of the crust, without a sedimentary layer, reaches 5-7 km.
The mantle is located under the ZK. They are separated by the border of Mohorovichić. Continental crust
both in structure and composition, it differs sharply from oceanic:
its thickness varies from 20-25 km under the island arcs to 80 km
under the young mountain fold belts of the Earth. Average
is equal to 40 km. The mass is about 0.4% of the mass of the Earth.
Consists of two main layers: granite-metamorphic and
basalt.
From chemical elements in ZK
in greatest quantities
oxygen is present (43.13%),
Si (26%) and Al (7.45%)
in the form of silicates and oxides. In the upper part of the Earth, two shells are distinguished - a rigid
the lithosphere and the more plastic and mobile - the asthenosphere.
The lithosphere includes the ZC and subcrustal upper mantle and
underlain by the asthenosphere.
The asthenosphere is easily deformed by stresses and
partially melts (several%).
).The lithosphere is divided into a limited number
lithospheric plates.
There are three types of plate movements and
according to their boundaries:
- divergent boundaries (expansion and
spreading);
-convergent (compression: subduction and
collision);
transform (shift).
The reason for the movement of lithospheric plates is
chemical density and thermal convection
mantle of the Earth. Types of slab boundaries. A - divergent (mid-ocean
ridge);
b - convergent (subduction zone); в - transform.
(Simkin et al., 1994) ZONES OF SUBDUCTION:
A - active continental margin;
b - island-arc subduction zone ZONES OF COLLISION
Transform Plate Boundaries Strike- slip motion of plate edges. No new crust material is added or destroyed at these transform faults. But they are associated with shallow earthquakes, sometimes of high magnitude.
Mechanisms of movement of lithospheric plates
1. Convection is the movement of a substance that occurs in an environment withunstable density as a result of the action
gravity, in which lighter substances
float up and the heavier ones go down
way down.
2. The process of chemical-density (gravitational)
differentiation of terrestrial matter, leading
to stratification of the Earth into a dense oxide-iron
core and residual silicate mantle.
3. Radioactive decay, the effect of plunging into
mantle of cold oceanic lithospheric
slabs.
Historical geology
Geochronology
Vgeochronology
stand out
two
way:
1. Methods of determination
relative
age of geological
formations;
2. Methods of absolute
geochronology.
Fig. 1 Geochronological scale,
depicted as a spiral
Relative age of rocks
Paleontologicalmethod
defines
consistency and
date of development stages
the earth's crust and
organic world
The absolute age of rocks
The name of the method is conditional. Rowresearchers give other names:
nuclear
geochronology,
applied
geochronology, isotope geochronology,
radiometric dating, etc.
All these synonyms indirectly reflect
research methods. Three chronograms showing different stages are presented
history of the earth.
1. The top chart covers ancient history land;
2. The second - phanerozoic, the time of the mass appearance of various
life forms;
3. Lower - Cenozoic, period of time after extinction
dinosaurs.
The main stages of evolution:
3. The origin and history of the development of the EarthThe main stages of evolution:
Archean era - the oldest (4.5-2.5 billion years)
Proterozoic - the era of the beginning of the origin of life (2.5
billion-535 million years),
paleozoic - era of ancient life
(531-251 million years),
Mesozoic - era of middle life
(251-65 million years)
Cenozoic - the era of new life
(65 million years - until now)
General information and geology and
planet earth
25
Principles of Historical Geology
Geology is a historical science, andits most important task is
sequencing
geological events. For execution
this task has long been developed
a series of simple and intuitive
timing features
rocks.
The principle of incompleteness of the geological record
Charles Darwininstalled the most
main principle principle of incompleteness
geological record
Geological record
is incomplete, and
many historical
stages of the planet's development
not fixed in
the form of rocks.
Gresley's principle
Facial differentiation principlesedimentary strata of the same age.
Thicknesses of the same age may differ in
appearance, depending on the conditions in which they
formed.
At the same time, a whole
facies series of sediments.
N. A. Golovkinsky's principle
At the heart ofprinciple lies
provision about
different times
these education
lithologically
homogeneous
layers.
Intrusive relationships
presentedcontacts
intrusive rocks
and containing them
thick. Detection
signs of such
relationship
(hardened zones, dikes
and so on) unambiguously
indicates that
intrusion
formed later,
than accommodating
breed.
Cutting relationships
also allowdefine
relative
age. If
rift tears
rocks,
means he
formed
later than they. Xenoliths and debris enter the rocks as a result
destruction of their source, respectively, they
formed earlier than their host rocks, and can
be used to determine the relative
age.
The principle of actualism
geologicalforces acting
in our time,
similarly
worked in
the old days.
James Hutton
formulated
principle
actualism phrase
"The present -
the key to the past. "
Fig. 2 Fossil
channel ridge
Superposition principle
The superposition principle isthat the rocks are not disturbed
folds and faults,
follow in the order of their formation, breed
lying higher and younger, and those that
are located below the section - ancient.
Final succession principle
at the same time in the oceanthe same organisms are common.
It follows from this that a paleontologist,
having identified a set of fossil remains in
breed, can find at the same time
formed rocks provided
similar processes of formation of mountain
rocks.
Development of historical geology
Diluvianism
I.Late 17th century attempts are being made
summarize not yet
sufficient knowledge in
some common
theory of the earth.
Most scholars of the end
17th - early 18th centuries
adhered to
perceptions of
existence in history
Flood lands
as a result of which
sedimentary
breeds and contained in
them fossils. II. Second half of the 18th century - development
elementary observation techniques and
accumulation of factual material.
Research has focused primarily on
to the description of the properties and conditions of occurrence
rocks. But even then they appeared
attempts to explain the genesis of rocks and
to understand the essence of the processes taking place
both on the surface of the Earth and in its
bowels. III. Mid-18th century - centuries appear
geological maps, at first small
plots, and then large areas. On
these maps showed the composition of the mountain
breeds, but age was not indicated. In Russia
the first "geognostic" map was
map of Eastern Transbaikalia, compiled
in 1789-94 by D. Lebedev and M. Ivanov. IV. Late 18th - early 19th century - Birth
geology as a science. Installed
the ability to separate the layers of the earth's crust
by age based on preserved in
them are the remains of ancient fauna and flora.
Later, this made it possible to generalize and
systematize previously scattered
mineralogical and paleontological
data made it possible to build
geochronological scale and creation
geological reconstructions. Abraham Gotlob
Werner is wrong
believed that
primary mountain
rocks (basalt)
educated
by the action of waters
primitive
ocean, while
volcanic
activity
attributed to them
burning stone
coal. First
applied
hierarchical
stratigraphic
classification. 1790 - English
scientist W. Smith
compiled a "scale
sedimentary
entities
England
1815 - made
the first
geological
map of England. Evolutionary
Charles's teachings
Darwin - gave
solid
methodological
basis for detailed
dismemberment by
age of sedimentary
shell of the earth.
Installed the most
the main principle is
incompleteness principle
geological
chronicles. Second half of the 19th century:
1872 - American geologist J. Dana singled out
Archean group of deposits, originally
covering the entire Precambrian.
1838 - the first ideas about
the existence of especially mobile belts of the earth
crust - geosynclines
French geologist M. Bertrand and Austrian
geologist E. Suess allocated for the territory of Europe
era of folding
(Caledonian, Hercynian and Alpine).
XX century - the geology of the seabed is developing and
oceans, geological survey is being carried out.
Modern geology. Geology of past years
Until the 18th century, geology was the department of mineralogy(passive description of minerals and rocks), or
physical geography. The main task of this science
was considered clarification of the issue of origin
land. Geology as a science in an understanding close to
modern, took shape at the end of the 18th century, when
the scattered stock of geological information was
systematized in Russia by M. Lomonosov, in
Germany A. Werner and others. The term "geology"
was introduced in 1657 by the scientist Emolt.
TWO MAIN AREAS OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH
In the last decadetwo main
research directions in
Earth Sciences - Deep
geodynamics and early history
Earth.
Into the deepest task
geodynamics includes the study
physical and chemical
processes taking place in
bowels of the Earth below 400
km, i.e. boundaries proper
upper mantle.
To solve this problem in
currently applied
three methods: seismic
tomography, experimental
mineralogy and mathematical Scheme of global tectonics (after S. Maruyama et al., 1994). There are three
the main geospheres with various processes occurring in them: the core,
the lower mantle and the upper mantle with crust, combined into the tectonosphere.
The arrows show the movement of the substance. Model of the main heat and mass transfer in
modern Earth (after S. Maruyama et al., 1994)
The main tasks of geology
1. Search and development of deposits invisible from the surface2. Study of the earth's crust and upper mantle by geophysical
methods
3. Study of metamorphic and magmatic formations, their
composition, structure and conditions of formation
4. Drilling ultra-deep wells
5. Study of the Precambrian strata from the standpoint of stratigraphy,
tectonics, mineralogy, petrography and placement in them
mineral
6. Study of the geology of the seabed and oceans (71% of the entire surface
Land)
7. Detailed study of underground heat as possible
energy resource of the future
8. Study of the evolution of internal and external geological
processes that determine the patterns of distribution
mineral resources.
9. Comparative study of the Earth and other planets
Spheres of the Earth
AtmosphereHydrosphere
Biosphere
Lithosphere
Atmosphere
Atmosphere-externalgas shell
Earth. Her bottom
the border runs along
lithosphere and
hydrosphere, and
top-at height
1000 km.
In the atmosphere
distinguish
troposphere
(moving layer),
stratosphere (layer above
troposphere) and
ionosphere (upper
layer).
Hydrosphere
Hydrospheretakes 71%
surface of the earth.
Temperature
oceanic
surfaces - from 3
up to 32 ° С, density
- about 1.
sunlight
penetrates
depth 200 m, and
ultraviolet
rays - to the depth
up to 800 m.
Biosphere
Biosphere, or spherelife, merges with
atmosphere,
hydrosphere and
lithosphere. Her upper
border reaches
upper layers
troposphere, lower -
runs along the bottom
ocean trenches.
Biosphere
subdivided into
the sphere of plants (over
500,000 species) and sphere
animals (over 1,000
000 species).
Lithosphere
Lithosphere-stoneshell of the earth
thickness from 40 to 100
km. It includes
continents, islands and
the bottom of the oceans.
Average height
continents above level
ocean: Antarctica-
2200 m, Asia-960 m,
Africa-750 m,
North America -
720 m, South America
- 590 m, Europe - 340
m, Australia - 340 m.
Cambrian period:
On the site of North America and Greenland, the continent of Laurentia. South - Brazilian
mainland. The African mainland included
Africa, Madagascar and Arabia. Farther north
the Russian mainland was located. East of
The Siberian was located on the Russian mainland.
mainland - Angarida.
Continents. Ancient and modern.
Ordovician periodAt the beginning of the Paleozoic (500-440 million years ago) in
Northern Hemisphere from ancient platforms -
Russian, Siberian, Chinese and North American - a single continent was formed
Laurasia.
Southern mainland Gondwana (Hindustan,
African, South American,
Antarctic platforms, as well as Arabia and
Australia)
Laurasia was separated from Gondwana by sea
(geosyncline) Tethys.
Slide 1
Geology 1773 Mining School Cadet Corps LGI St. Petersburg Mining UniversitySlide 2
Geology is of great practical and cognitive importance in the life of mankind The main practical value of geology is the development of issues of metallogeny and minerageny - the identification of patterns of formation and distribution of mineral deposits in space and time, analysis of the geological structure of the territory and the allocation of regions and areas within it promising for various ores, non-metallic raw materials, building materials, precious stones, hydrocarbons (gas, oil), and water, which is becoming more expensive and scarce
Slide 3
Geoecology, prevention of emergencies 1. Radiation observations, 2. Prediction of earthquakes 3. Prediction of volcanic eruptions 4. Prevention of landslides, landslides, karst sinkholes. 5. Predictions of uplifts and subsidence of land areas. Engineering geology Investigation of territories for construction, survey of routes railways and highways, sections hydraulic structures etc.
Slide 4
The cognitive significance of geology A person knows about the structure of the planet Earth, on which we live much less than about the outer space around us. With a radius of the Earth 6378 km. and the thickness of the continental crust of 40 km, the deepest Kola superdeep well penetrated into the bowels of only 12261 m. We judge about deep bowels only by indirect signs and build various ambiguous hypotheses. Lack of knowledge is always fraught with danger and limits our capabilities.
Slide 5
Geology is a synthetic science that studies the Earth and other planets. It uses data and overlaps with many natural sciences: geography, geophysics, geochemistry, geoecology. Geology includes: petrography, mineragraphy, historical geology, dynamic geology, mineralogy, crystallography, tectonics, lithology, paleontology, geophysics, metallogeny, etc. Practical geology and exploration techniques closely related to scientific geology, including: geological surveying, prospecting, exploration, mapping, remote sensing methods, etc. are of great importance.
Slide 6
Geological sciences are grouped in three directions 1. Substance-geochemical direction: petrology, petrography, mineralogy and geochemistry. 2. Genetic (history of origin and development): historical geology, stratigraphy, paleogeography, Quaternary geology, paleontology. 3. Dynamic geology, which studies the features of processes: geotectonics, volcanology, seismology, karst studies.
Slide 7
System analysis In system analysis, there are two ways of ordering information, namely, classification and systematization of objects. Classification is the division of objects of the same type according to any of their common characteristics. For example, people can be classified according to: height, eye color, etc. In geology, all studied objects (minerals, rocks, volcanoes ...) are necessarily classified. Another way of ordering objects is systematization - the division of objects according to their subordination (subordination), a reflection of the ordering, built on the principle of subordination.
Slide 8
Features of geological objects All objects have special features that characterize them, these are: 1- form, 2-composition, 3-structure (structure), 4- properties, 5-origin. Features are divided into qualitative and quantitative. Quantitative features, in turn, are subdivided into relative and absolute. Relative features are used when comparing objects of the same type. Relative features underlie the construction of rankings, despite the fact that these estimates are sometimes denounced in numerical form (for example, in the so-called points).
Slide 9
For example, an earthquake score is relative. In connection with the introduction into science computer technology there is a need to translate qualitative characteristics into quantitative ones. This technique is called formalization or coding, and consists in giving a numerical value to a qualitative characteristic. It is widely used in the practice of scientific research with the aim of ordering the observed objects. Absolute signs are always based on a strict measure, which is considered immutable and constant. Such a measure can be a measure of length, volume, velocity, salinity, temperature, etc.
Slide 10
Hierarchical systematization of objects Geology explores the planet at different levels of organization of matter, in this regard, the objects of study are: 1. Atoms (objects of physics research), 2. Molecules (object of chemistry research) 3. Minerals - simple or complex substances formed in the bowels of planets , 4. Rocks - a set of minerals, 5. Rock-rock bodies, geological bodies (litoms), 6. Earth shells, 7. Planets. 8. Star systems 9. Galaxies The analysis should be carried out taking into account the level of organization of matter and connections between levels.
Slide 11
Relationship between an object and a feature Some features of objects are obvious and can be observed visually. Most of the others are hidden from the observer, and we can only assume about their existence. In order for the guesses to receive factual confirmation, it is necessary to study it, resorting to the help of special devices and devices. Thus, imperceptibly for us, the feature acquires the status of the subject of research.
Slide 12
Geology has a structure completely subordinate to the hierarchical systematization of the objectively existing world, and this is expressed in the existence of many geological disciplines, the objects of study of which correspond to hierarchical levels. Considering the relationship between the concepts "object" and "subject", one must remember that each object of a lower level, being part of an object of a higher level, becomes its characteristic (feature), and, therefore, its subject of research. Example: a chemical element that is an object of geochemistry research, when considering objects of a mineral level, becomes only one of the characteristics of minerals studied by another science - mineralogy. Accordingly, we will begin the General Geology course by studying minerals.
Slide 13
Organization of geological works 1. Collecting materials about the structure of the territory, drawing up topographic maps. 2. Carrying out geological surveys from M 1: 1000 000 to M 1: 50 000 and, with detailing the most promising territories and drawing up geological maps containing all the basic information about the structure of the territory 3. Carrying out prospecting work on identified minerals, in promising areas, with boring holes. Anomalies and ore occurrences are revealed. 4. Carrying out exploration work with drilling, sometimes ditching and adits. Ore bodies are identified, reserves are calculated. 5. Operational exploration and ore mining. In parallel, the research institutes carry out thematic works to assist production workers and identify prospects for further work.
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Slide captions:
Geological processes
Where can you find stalactites and stalagmites? A) In a canyon B) In a karst cave C) In a coal mine D) In a volcano crater
What created free-standing pillars from solid rock? Earthquake Weathering Human activity Volcanic activity
What is pouring out of the crater of a volcano? Magma Lava Mantle M antili i
What is it? Mountain glacier Landslide Frozen river Mud stream
What destroys coastal cliffs the most? Living organisms Human activities Rainwater Sea waves
What natural force created these dunes? Wind Sea waves Glacier Tsunami
How do these rock layers occur? Vertically Inclined Horizontally Wrinkled
What is it? Geyser Volcanic eruption Heating network breakthrough Artesian well
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Slide captions:
geology
a science that studies the structure and history of the development of the Earth ...
The longest periods of time in the geological history of the Earth are ...
The most ancient era - ...
We live in an era ...
The period in which the ancient glaciation took place ...
The youngest folding ...
The platform is ... There are ... and ...
The stove is ... The shield is ...
Geosyncline is ...
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Slide captions:
minerals
Forms of finding minerals in nature Forms of finding minerals in nature are determined by the peculiarities of their internal structure, composition, conditions of formation. Most minerals are crystalline substances. Single crystals are relatively rare in nature; more often you have to deal with mineral aggregates.
Druses of minerals The aggregates of large crystals with a common base are called druses.
Intergrowths of small crystals are called - brushes
Crystallization of minerals often occurs in cracks and cavities in rocks. Forms of filling voids include nodules, secretions, stalactites, stalagmites, dendrites
nodules
secretions
secretions
Stalactites and stalagmites
dendrides
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Prehistoric life
Trilobite Carapace Fish
pareiasaurus
ammonites belemnites
ankylosaurus
saurolophus
plesiosaur
ramphorhynch
pterodactyl
ichthyosaur
tyrannosaur
indricotherium
triceratox
archeopteryx
diatrim
Saber-toothed tiger
Cave bear
Woolly rhino
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Natural stone in the decoration of St. Petersburg
Limestone called "Putilovskaya slab" - the very first natural stone that came into use together with brick in Peter's time - this sedimentary rock was formed at the bottom of the sea, which occupied the territory of our region in the Ordovician time. The breed is dense, has a gray color with a green or yellow tint. The excavations of the stone were located near the Tosno and Volkhov rivers, as well as in the area of the Putilovskaya mountain. And now near the village of Putilovo there is a quarry for the extraction of this limestone.
The Menshikov Palace was built using the Putilov slab
Peter and Paul Fortress, building of 12 colleges
Palace of Peter 1, A nichkov Palace
Lime tuff or Pudozh stone attracted builders by the fact that it was easily processed with a knife and a saw at the moment of extraction from the layer, and then hardened and was not inferior in strength to marble.
The facing of the outer walls and columns of the large colonnade of the Kazan Cathedral are made of Pudozh stone
Sculptures at the central entrance to the Mountain Institute
Sculptures of the main arch of the Admiralty
Sculptures symbolizing the 4 great Russian rivers at the base of the Rostral columns.
Rapakivi granite is a visiting card of our city. This stone began to be actively used in the construction of St. Petersburg from the end of the 18th century. The stone deposit is located on the territory of Finland and the Leningrad region.
In St. Isaac's Cathedral, this marble is used for facing the outer walls and the floor of the interior.
In the marble palace - window frames on the 2nd and 3rd floors and the interior decoration of the palace
In the engineering castle - cladding of external and internal walls
Pedestals for the monument to Rumyantsev and the sculpture of Zeus were made of Ruskeala marble
An example of its use today is the facing of the Primorskaya and Ladozhskaya metro stations.
Carrara marble (summer garden sculptures)
Tivdia and Belogorsk marble were mined in Karelia
This marble was used to create the interiors of St. Isaac's Cathedral
The Marble Hall of the Ethnographic Museum Interiors of the Marble Palace
Monument to N ikolai 1 The pedestal of the monument is made of Shoksha quartzite. This stone was mined on the shores of Lake Onega
The main sections of geology: Mineralogy; Mineralogy; Crystallography; Crystallography; Petrography and Lithology; Petrography and Lithology; Geochemistry; Geochemistry; Geophysics; Geophysics; Geomorphology; Geomorphology; Hydrogeology; Hydrogeology; Geology of Quaternary deposits; Geology of Quaternary deposits;
The doctrine of minerals; The doctrine of minerals; Geotectonics; Geotectonics; Paleogeography; Paleogeography; Stratigraphy; Stratigraphy; Paleontology; Paleontology; Sections are often distinguished: dynamic geology, mineralogy and petrography, geotectonics and volcanology. Sections are often distinguished: dynamic geology, mineralogy and petrography, geotectonics and volcanology.
History of science: Aristotle (years BC) - presented the first astronomical evidence of the sphericity of the Earth; Aristotle (years BC) - presented the first astronomical evidence of the sphericity of the Earth; Aristarchus of Samos (III century BC) - anticipated the heliocentric system of the world of Copernicus; Aristarchus of Samos (III century BC) - anticipated the heliocentric system of the world of Copernicus; Al-Biruni (gg.) From Khorezm - determined the circumference of the globe; Al-Biruni (gg.) From Khorezm - determined the circumference of the globe; Leonardo da Vinci (gg.) - fossils found in rocks considered the movement of land and sea; Leonardo da Vinci (gg.) - fossils found in rocks considered the movement of land and sea;
Lomonosov M.V. () - is rightfully considered one of the founders of scientific geology; Lomonosov M.V. () - is rightfully considered one of the founders of scientific geology; An important role in the development of geological ideas about the origin of the Earth belongs to I. Kant, a German philosopher, and P. Laplace, a French mathematician and astronomer. An important role in the development of geological ideas about the origin of the Earth belongs to I. Kant, a German philosopher, and P. Laplace, a French mathematician and astronomer.
Warring trends in science (late 18th century): Neptunists - believed that the basis of all changes in the Earth is the action of external forces (water, wind, ice, sea), the ideological inspirer of the Freiberg Academy professor Werner; Neptunists - believed that the basis of all changes in the Earth is the action of external forces (water, wind, ice, sea), the ideological inspirer of the Freiberg Academy professor Werner; Plutonists - based on the action of internal energy (volcanism, earthquakes), the ideological inspirer of the Scottish geologist Getton. Plutonists - based on the action of internal energy (volcanism, earthquakes), the ideological inspirer of the Scottish geologist Getton.
Contribution of Russian scientists to science: 1882 - the Geological Committee is created in St. Petersburg, which directs the study of the geology of Russia in pre-revolutionary times; 1882 - the Geological Committee is created in St. Petersburg, which directs the study of the geology of Russia in pre-revolutionary times; A.P. Karpinsky - the father of Russian geology; A.P. Karpinsky - the father of Russian geology; IV Mushketov - laid the foundation for seismotectonic research; IV Mushketov - laid the foundation for seismotectonic research;
VA Obruchev - worked out many important questions (a major researcher of Siberia and Central Asia); VA Obruchev - worked out many important questions (a major researcher of Siberia and Central Asia); A.P. Pavlov - the founder of the doctrine of Quaternary sediments; A.P. Pavlov - the founder of the doctrine of Quaternary sediments; ES Fedorov - famous crystallographer; ES Fedorov - famous crystallographer; VI Vernadsky - his works on geochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology are world famous. VI Vernadsky - his works on geochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology are world famous.
The first cosmogonic hypotheses: The first cosmogonic hypotheses: Cosmogony is the science of the origin and development of celestial bodies. Cosmogony is the science of the origin and development of celestial bodies. All hypotheses about the origin of the Earth can be divided into two main groups: All hypotheses about the origin of the Earth can be divided into two main groups: - nebular (lat. "Nebula" - fog, gas) - the Kant-Laplace hypothesis. - catastrophic - Jeans hypothesis.
Modern hypotheses: The solar system was formed from a cluster of interstellar matter captured by the Sun in the process of movement in world space - the hypothesis of O.Yu. Schmidt. The solar system was formed from a cluster of interstellar matter captured by the Sun in the process of movement in world space - O.Yu. Schmidt's hypothesis. The formation of planets is associated with the formation of new stars arising as a result of the thickening of the initially rarefied matter - the hypothesis of V.G. Fesenkov The formation of planets is associated with the formation of new stars arising as a result of the thickening of the initially rarefied matter - the hypothesis of V.G. Fesenkov
Slide 2: GEOLOGY
the science of the composition, structure and laws of development of the Earth Descriptive - deals with the study of the location and composition of geological bodies, including their shape, size, relationship, sequence of occurrence, as well as the description of various minerals and rocks. Dynamic - considers the evolution of geological processes, such as the destruction of rocks, their transport by wind, glaciers, surface or underground waters, the accumulation of sediments (external to the earth's crust) or the movement of the earth's crust, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions (internal). Historical - deals with the study of the sequence of geological processes of the past. Geology Sections
Slide 3: Earth Science
Mineralogy is a branch of geology that studies minerals, questions of their genesis, qualifications. The study of rocks formed in the processes associated with the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere of the Earth, is engaged in lithology. These rocks are not exactly called sedimentary rocks. Geocryology - studies the permafrost rocks with characteristic properties and features. Petrography (petrology) is a branch of geology that studies igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks - their description, origin, composition, textural and structural features, as well as classification. Structural geology is a branch of geology that studies the forms of occurrence of geological bodies and disturbances in the earth's crust. Crystallography - originally one of the areas of mineralogy, now rather a physical discipline.
Slide 4: Dynamic Geology Sciences
Tectonics is a branch of geology that studies the movement of the earth's crust. Volcanology is a branch of geology that studies volcanism. Seismology is a branch of geology that studies geological processes during earthquakes, seismic zoning. Geocryology is a branch of geology that studies permafrost. Petrology (petrography) - a branch of geology that studies the genesis and conditions of origin of igneous and metamorphic rocks
Slide 5: Sciences of Historical Geology
Historical geology is a branch of geology that studies data on the sequence of major events in the history of the Earth. The history of the Earth is divided into two major stages - the aeon, according to the appearance of organisms with hard parts, leaving traces in sedimentary rocks and making it possible to determine the relative geological age using paleontological data. Precambrian geology stands out as a special discipline, as it deals with the study of specific, often strongly and repeatedly metamorphosed complexes and has special research methods. Paleontology studies ancient life forms and deals with the description of fossil remains, as well as traces of the vital activity of organisms. Stratigraphy is the science of determining the relative geological age of sedimentary rocks, the division of rock strata and the correlation of various geological formations. One of the main sources of data for stratigraphy is paleontological determinations
Slide 6: Applied disciplines
Mineral geology studies the types of deposits, methods of their search and exploration. Divided into oil gas geology, coal geology, metallogeny. Hydrogeology is a branch of geology that studies groundwater. Engineering geology - a branch of geology that studies the interaction of the geological environment and engineering structures
Slide 7: Other sections of geology
Geochemistry is a branch of geology that studies the chemical composition of the Earth, processes that concentrate and dissipate chemical elements in various spheres of the Earth. Geophysics is a branch of geology that studies the physical properties of the Earth, which also includes a set of exploration methods: gravity prospecting, seismic prospecting, magnetic prospecting, electrical prospecting of various modifications, etc. Geobarothermometry is a science that studies a set of methods for determining the pressure and temperatures of formation of minerals and rocks. Microstructural geology is a branch of geology that studies the deformation of rocks at the microlevel, on the scale of grains of minerals and aggregates. Geodynamics is a science that studies the evolution of the Earth on a planetary scale, the connection between processes in the core, mantle and the earth's crust. Geochronology is a branch of geology that determines the age of rocks and minerals. Lithology is a branch of geology that studies sedimentary rocks. The history of geology is a section of the history of geological knowledge and mining. Agrogeology - a section of geology about the search, extraction and use of agricultural ore in agriculture and also about the mineralogical composition of agricultural soils.
Slide 8: Basic principles of geology
The principle of actualism is that the geological forces acting in our time worked in a similar way in the old days. James Hutton formulated the principle of actualism with the phrase "The present is the key to the past." The principle of primary horizontality - during formation, marine sediments lie horizontally. The principle of superposition - rocks that are not disturbed by folding and faults follow in the order of their formation, rocks lying higher are younger, and those that are lower in the section are older. The principle of consistency is that the same organisms are distributed in the ocean at the same time. It follows from this that a paleontologist, having determined a set of fossil remains in a rock, can find simultaneously formed rocks. Continuity Principle - What construction material, forming layers, stretches along the surface of the earth, unless some other mass limits it.
Last slide of the presentation: GEOLOGY: Key geological events
4.568 billion years ago - the formation of the solar system. 4.54 billion years ago - the accretion of the Earth. 3.8 billion years ago - end of the late heavy bombing, first life. 3.5 billion years ago - the first photosynthesis. 2.4-2 billion years ago - the enrichment of the atmosphere with oxygen, the first ice age. 900-630 million years ago - the second ice age. 540 million years ago - the Cambrian explosion, a sudden increase in biodiversity; the beginning of the Paleozoic. 360 million years ago - the first terrestrial vertebrates. 199.6 million years ago - Triassic-Jurassic, one of the largest extinctions of the Mesozoic era. 65.5 million years ago - the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction, the last mass extinction that destroyed the dinosaurs; the end of the Mesozoic and the beginning of the Cenozoic. 6 million years ago-present - hominini: 6 million years ago - the first homininis appear; 4 million years ago - the first Australopithecines, the direct ancestors of modern people; 124 thousand years ago - the first Homo sapiens appeared in East Africa.
