Topic: Foreign experience in personnel management. The American Human Resources Management System: What Are The Main Advantages? Human resource management in other countries

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Introduction

"The manager does not deal with dogs, not with monkeys,
but with people. Its only purpose is as
a leader - to encourage other people to work "
Lee Iacocca

It is known that well-organized company management is the key to its success. There are various schools of management: American, European, Japanese. Each of them has its own characteristics associated with the national traditions of the country. For example, certain difficulties arose when trying to export Japanese management abroad. So natural for the employees of this country, the spirit of the firm - the family, when Japanese managers ask their charges about the details of their lives outside the scope of official duties, Europeans and Americans, who became employees of foreign branches of Japanese firms, were perceived as interference in private life.

Basically, the question of which management is better: Japanese, American or European is not entirely legitimate. The search for an optimal model can only go along the path of mutual adaptation and mutual enrichment. Companies that are able to perceive new forms and ideas, abandon something traditional but hindering development, get advantages.

Section 1

Personnel policy in American firms is usually based on more or less the same principles. Recruitment. General criteria for the selection of personnel are education, practical work experience, psychological compatibility, and the ability to work in a team. The leading personnel in the firm are appointed. Particular attention is paid to providing the company with qualified personnel for such professions as adjusters, toolmakers, repair personnel. There is a shortage of qualified personnel at the bottom level: senior foremen and foremen. This is due to high demands and responsibility, insufficient moral and material incentives, the reluctance of skilled workers to occupy the positions of foremen, and the increased requirements for this work in the field of technology and the human factor.

Working conditions. The introduction of automation in production has made significant changes in the working conditions of personnel:

replacing rigid lists of professions and job descriptions with wider, more acceptable and convenient for workers;
a decrease in the workload in central services and a reduction in the administrative apparatus;
transition to flexible forms of remuneration;
unification of engineers, scientists and production workers in end-to-end (from design to manufacture of products) teams - design and target groups.

Of great importance in the development of personnel policy are the principles and requirements for employees who are hired.

American firms that employ traditional recruitment principles focus on specialized knowledge and skills.

Firms focus on the narrow specialization of managers, engineers and scientists. American specialists, as a rule, are professionals in a narrow field of knowledge, and therefore, their advancement along the management hierarchy occurs only vertically, which means, for example, that the financier will make a career only in this area. This limits the possibilities of moving up the management levels, causes the turnover of managerial personnel, their transfer from one firm to another.

Upon hiring, all candidates are tested to identify professional training. Usually, each firm develops its own selection criteria and procedures for hiring employees. After hiring, an induction procedure is carried out, when the employee is introduced to his duties according to instructions corresponding to his narrow specialization, the activities of the company as a whole and its organizational structure.

In American firms, the dismissal of personnel, including managers, is always accompanied by a series of evaluative and educational techniques, with the exception of extreme situations (theft, fraud, obvious violation of order). Each employee is assessed once or twice a year. The results of the assessment are discussed by the employee and his supervisor and signed by them. They contain a list of shortcomings in work and ways to eliminate them, as well as, if necessary, a warning about dismissal or that further tenure depends on improving work.

The final decision on the dismissal of an employee is made by the manager two or three levels higher than the manager himself. In any case, the employee can appeal against the decision to dismiss at a higher level of management or in court. Some firms have labor dispute commissions that deal with employee dismissal complaints. The composition of such commissions includes both representatives of the administration and workers.

In most firms in modern conditions, the prevailing trend is to reduce the number of employees of functional services in the process of reorganization of the company as a whole. For example, Ford and Chrysler have laid off about 40% of their functional services workers. Along with the reduction in the number of administrative staff, the system of information flows and decision-making procedures was restructured.

American entrepreneurs tend to be more one-to-one, while Japanese entrepreneurs tend to favor the concept of a team.

Personnel management approaches.

Human capital approach. Small investment in training. It is easier for an employee to “buy” specific skills training. Formalized assessment.
Labor market approach. External factors come first. Short term rental. Specialized promotion ladder
Devotion to the organization approach. Direct employment contracts. External incentives. Individual working buildings. Rigid service career model; the American model of organization management adapts to external circumstances, changes in which lead to changes in the organization as a whole.

American scientists - sociologists, economists - note that in the course of the modern stage of scientific and technological revolution, there is a dramatic expansion of the ability of workers to influence the results of production and economic activities. This is explained not only by the fact that today the worker sets in motion a huge mass of materialized labor. The nature of modern production and management technology in many cases precludes strict regulation, requires the provision of a certain autonomy in decision-making directly at the workplace, and at the same time limits the possibilities of supervision over the actions of the operator. The American sociologist D. Yankelovich considers the expansion of the individual powers of the modern worker in comparison with the partial worker of the era of the industrial revolution as one of the defining signs of the "second industrial revolution." The noted changes in the content of labor, undoubtedly, take place and have an impact on the restructuring of the approach to personnel management.

These changes are visible not only at the production, but also at all levels of management. Computerization of management today makes it possible to eliminate a number of intermediate links in its middle echelon, especially those positions in which managers are mainly engaged in the aggregation of information. This increases the level of complexity and responsibility of decisions made at the highest levels, a number of powers are additionally delegated to the middle and lower levels of management. Many corporations are undergoing a radical restructuring of the work of lower-level managers, especially in the case of organizing "self-governing work groups." At the same time, at many factories, for example, the new complex "Saturn" by "General Motors", the figure of the master disappears from the staffing table altogether and an attempt is made to transfer his functions to the working group. On the contrary, the responsibilities of senior foremen overseeing several autonomous working groups become much more complicated, and leaders are required to work differently, use leadership and persuasion skills, increase attention to personnel training and management of the moral and psychological climate in teams, not to mention knowledge of new technology. and computer literacy.

Changes in the nature of the necessary professional skills, job requirements, and the level of responsibility determine the obligation of special training and advanced training of employees. For example, at the Saturn factories, the preparation of workers before starting work as part of "self-governing working groups" takes from 3 to 6 months and is carried out according to special programs.

Personnel training is considered within the framework of the "human resources approach" as a means of increasing individual work efficiency. It is believed that as a result of training, the gap in the values of employees for the firm (in relation to the best) can be reduced by 2-3 times, and profits, respectively, increased.

The approach to the labor force as a resource also means an awareness of the limited sources of certain categories of qualified specialists, managers, workers in comparison with the needs of production, which leads to competition for the possession of the most important and scarce categories of it. The private capitalist economic system widens the gap between the rapidly changing needs of production and the general level and nature of professional training of workers. Scientific and technological revolution requires an increase in the costs of firms for training, professional training, systematic advanced training and retraining. The pursuit of the most qualified workforce with practical experience by many corporations solves their particular problems, but increases the general imbalances in the labor market. This circumstance is reflected in the competition for high quality labor. The transition to proactive recruitment methods requires, however, a significant increase in the budget of the personnel services. Calculations for one company showed that recruiting a specialist in college, on average, costs a firm 3 times more than conventional recruiting methods from among those who applied to the firm. In corporations that pay such costs, labor is no longer a "free" resource. Since capital is invested in it, the firm becomes interested in a sufficiently long and complex use of this specific "resource".

In practical terms, this approach is associated with such new moments in personnel work as making forecasts of needs for certain categories of personnel; special accounting of qualifications and professional skills with the formation of a data bank; transition to active methods of recruiting and selecting personnel outside the firm; significant expansion of the scale of application of in-house personnel training; the use of an annual formalized assessment of labor results to thoroughly identify in the interests of the company the existing potential of each employee, etc. Large corporations began to create elements of in-house social infrastructure for various purposes - from cafeterias to medical and physical dispensaries, programs to improve working conditions and more general programs to improve the quality of working life.

A number of corporations interested in high quality human resources have made major efforts in recent years to study and develop new approaches to their planning and use, new forms of management organization. Thus, 16 of the largest corporations jointly created the "Association for Monitoring the External Environment", which, on the instructions of the corporations funding it, studies the impact of new technology, government regulation and other external factors on human resource management.

Today, two trends are operating simultaneously in the use of labor in the United States. The first is the desire of corporations to fully meet the needs of their own production with a high-quality workforce, thereby achieving important advantages in the competitive struggle. Industries associated with new areas of scientific and technological progress make much higher demands on the quality of the personnel employed. This strategy involves additional investments not only in training and development of the workforce, but also in creating the necessary conditions for its fuller use. This, in turn, creates the interest of firms in reducing turnover and retaining employees for the firm. Hence the tendency towards a significant expansion and restructuring of work with personnel.

The concept of "human resources" uses economic arguments to justify new approaches to the use of personnel and the need for capital investment in the development of labor resources. In those cases, when the employer deals with a surplus labor market, low-skilled personnel, or the corresponding economic situation, this concept turns in other facets and is actually combined with the most archaic forms of personnel work, labor intensification.

The presence of many examples of large long-term investments and large organizational efforts of corporations in terms of recruiting, training and developing personnel, creating conditions for increasing labor productivity only confirms the general rule according to which the personnel policy of corporations is determined by the economic assessment of the effectiveness of the costs incurred.

The choice of a strategy for personnel work is determined by the real conditions of the functioning of corporations. They, in turn, are largely due to the current mechanism of state monopoly regulation.

Section 2

Japan has its own specificity in personnel management, which is based on the following features: hiring workers for life or for a long time; salary increase with seniority; participation of workers in trade unions that are created at the firm.

The following basic principles of the Japanese type of management can be distinguished:

interweaving of interests and spheres of life of firms and employees, high dependence of an employee on his firm, providing him with significant social guarantees and benefits in exchange for loyalty to the firm and a willingness to protect its interests.
priority of the collective over the individual, encouraging the cooperation of people within the firm, within various small groups, an atmosphere of equality between employees regardless of their positions;
maintaining a balance of influence and interests of the three main forces that ensure the functioning of the firm: managers, specialists and investors (shareholders);
formation of partnerships between firms - business partners, including between suppliers and buyers of products.

Thus, the personnel management system in Japan presupposes employment guarantees, training of new workers, remuneration depending on the length of service, and a flexible salary system.

Guaranteed employment is provided in Japan to a certain extent by a life-long employment system that applies to workers until they reach 55-60 years of age. This system covers approximately 25-30% of Japanese workers employed in large firms. However, in the event of a sharp deterioration in the financial situation, Japanese firms still go through layoffs; there are no official documents regarding employment guarantees. Nonetheless, it is believed that job security provided by Japanese firms to their employees is at the heart of the success they have achieved in improving productivity and product quality, in ensuring employee loyalty to their firm.

Japanese firms are of the opinion that a manager should be a specialist capable of working in any part of the firm. Therefore, when improving qualifications, the head of a department or division chooses for development a new field of activity in which he has not worked before.

Firms use a combination of professions, the ability to work in a team, an understanding of the importance of their work for a common cause, the ability to solve production problems, link the solution of various problems, write competent notes and draw charts as a criterion.

In most firms, hiring involves familiarizing the employee with a description of the intended job function, rights and responsibilities. If the specific job for which the employee is accepted is not included in the annual plan, then its justification is necessary, according to which the proposed position must be qualified by the personnel department for its inclusion in the existing remuneration system.

Recruiting begins after the proposals for a new position are approved by senior management. The HR department helps the head of the department where the vacancy is announced to select the candidates for the employees. He usually prepares a short list of candidates that fit the qualifications for the position. Some firms consider it compulsory to include employees from other divisions of their firm on the candidate list. External recruitment is carried out through advertising, personal contacts, professional recruitment firms, available electronic databases. The candidates on the list usually go through a series of interviews with future leaders (two to three levels up), colleagues and, if necessary, with subordinates. The interview results are summarized and supplemented with recommendations. The final choice is made by the immediate supervisor. Nissan's motto, "The company is the workforce," sums up the personnel policy of Japanese companies in a succinct manner.

In personnel management, there are three interrelated approaches arising from economic and organizational theories.

The first approach is related to the formation of human capital. It is based on the organization's desire to develop its own workforce rather than recruiting outsiders. This approach is a variation of the "build or buy" philosophy: some companies find it more economical to buy than make components for their product, others prefer to buy ready-made talent from the outside, rather than invest in its preparation and development.

This strategy has its positive and negative aspects. In conditions of high competitive external labor markets, it is more profitable for an organization (in order to avoid the loss of an employee) to set high wages for an employee for additional qualifications. In this case, the organization pays the employee for new skills that allow him to acquire and accumulate experience. Thus, for the employee, this is a gift from the organization for reducing staff turnover, because the cost of experience is additional training.

The second approach is associated with the use of factors in personnel management that motivate the employer to search for an optimal professional profile on the external labor market. It should be borne in mind that the attraction of labor to the foreign market is associated with certain restrictions. Thus, certain costs are required for the selection of personnel, there are certain obstacles as a result of the activities of trade union associations, market conditions can reduce the supply of qualified labor required for a given organization. Under these conditions, the use of an external labor market increases the costs associated with hiring workers.

As a result, it becomes more profitable for the organization to develop its workforce on the basis of its own rules. Attention is paid to retaining skilled and experienced workers with high demands on each workplace. Staff turnover and lack of employment are seen as costly consequences of using the external labor market.

The third approach builds on the concept of organizational dedication, which leads to the creation of a behavioral model of the organization. In this case, the degree of involvement of employees in its activities is such that they are identified with the organization. The economic relationship between the employee and the employer is reinforced by contracts between employees and the organization, which determine wages, other economic parameters that establish responsibility and limit abuse of power. But this includes psychological factors, for example, the conscientiousness of the employee, the certainty of the task and its dependence on performance, the personal and firm values, individual and group relationships, etc.

This combination of economic and psychological parameters aims to include responsibility for the results of performance in the employee's duties in an environment of high confidence in him. If the managerial philosophy of an organization is "conscientious daily work for a certain daily wage," its "psychological contract" with employees will be characterized by the presence of a large number of "blue collars." If her philosophy is to provide meaningful and rewarding work, she will invest more in worker development. A top-down HR management system centralizes selection, assessment, reward and development decisions; the bottom-up management system distributes solutions to all levels.

A human resource system aimed at group execution will take into account social compatibility in the selection process. It will also use a group-centered scoring system and provide rewards that are acceptable to the group as a whole.

1. The "human capital" approach.

Japanese model: Large investment in training. The employee needs to be "raised" General training. Unformalized assessment.

2. The "labor market" approach.

Japanese model: Internal factors come first. Long Term (Lifetime Hiring). Non-specialized promotion ladder.

3. The "organization dedication" approach.

Japanese Model: Internal Incentives. Group orientation at work. Complex ladder of advancement ("snake")

In the Japanese management model, the most important mechanisms of change are tied to the internal mechanisms of labor placement.

The Japanese model of personnel management has the following features:

a) general ethnic features - hard work, highly developed aesthetic feeling, love of nature, adherence to traditions, a tendency to borrow, ethnocentrism, practicality;
b) traits of group behavior - discipline, devotion to authority, a sense of duty;
c) everyday life traits - politeness, accuracy, self-control, frugality, curiosity.

The introduction of elements of family relations in the management of Japanese firms created favorable conditions for strengthening labor discipline, improving interpersonal relations vertically and horizontally, and, ultimately, for increasing production efficiency.

One of the components of the conceptual basis of personnel control can be called "total involvement". This concept encompasses a number of provisions that confirm the colossal prestige of the labor process in the eyes of workers.

"Total involvement" corresponds to the dominance of brigade labor methods in Japanese enterprises. There is a borrowing from the ideas and practice of the functioning of families-clans. Selfless work by the whole team, in which every member was supposed to dissolve without a trace, was invariably considered a patriotic duty, the best means of achieving production goals.

An employee, being part of a brigade, feels like he is in his usual "family bosom", immediately mobilizes to guard him by hard work, and is most afraid of letting his colleagues down with incompetence or insufficient diligence. By the way, these fears induce him, in particular, to be enthusiastic about participating in the rotation system, that is, mastering related professions and thereby ensuring mutual assistance and interchangeability of team members.

The constant and deep concern of each employee for the interests of the brigade forms the background against which labor competition unfolds in Japanese companies. But it must be emphasized that the goal of the competition is not overfulfillment of the assigned tasks, but their scrupulous fulfillment.

The second component of the conceptual basis of personnel control can be considered "trust". This concept describes the firm belief of employees that any of their contributions to the success of the company, any sacrifices made for the sake of its prosperity, sooner or later, will be rewarded in one form or another.

In Japan, the system of "life-long employment" and payment by seniority has become widespread: the main motivational role of the former is to guarantee stable employment, regardless of market fluctuations and other factors, and the latter is to guarantee an increasing payment for long-term loyalty to the firm.

The system of "life-long employment" includes almost exclusively graduates of educational institutions who have not previously entered the labor market, do not have professional skills at all and, which is very important in Japan, professional skills that adequately meet the requirements of the employing company.

Therefore, newcomers, first of all, are passed through the mechanism of industrial training with rotation for various types of their professional profile to identify aptitude, the best compatibility with one or another of these types, and only after completing a training course should they be directed to a specific job.

The third component of the conceptual basis of personnel control is "emotional closeness". This term quite accurately reflects the essence of the statements of a number of theorists and practitioners of Japanese management regarding the elimination of official and personal barriers within the work collective without a trace in order to protect it from the harmful consequences of stressful, conflict situations. "emotional closeness" occurs primarily in the workplace, in the production process. To some extent, this occurs on the basis of simple communication between individuals working side by side. However, the main burden is borne by measures that promote the expansion of workers' participation in corporate governance.

The early and thorough preparedness of Japanese firms for the perception of "participation in management" was ensured both by the reproduction of clan customs in enterprises with their group orientation, and by the systems of "lifelong recruitment" and payment by seniority, which create and preserve the constancy of the most productive part of the workforce, and that very important from the point of view of maximizing "emotional closeness", the traditional decision-making system ("rings").

This system is based on the use of a project of one or another solution that can be proposed to the management of the company by various representatives of the management layer from top to bottom along the links of the organizational structure for evaluation. The main goal of launching a project into communication channels is to achieve general agreement on the recommended solution.

Some foreign experts see in the "rings" system such potential drawbacks as slowness and dispersal of responsibility for performance. Apparently, this time, too, they mechanically apply Western norms.

The clan-like nature of the functioning of a Japanese firm turns the agreement of the staff with the decision made into a necessity that cannot be ignored in any way. Behind what seems to be slow to an outsider's eye, there is a thoroughly conducted information and consulting work covering a wide mass of employees, including, of course, representatives of the "lower classes", work that makes the decision "a collective property" and, therefore, obligatory for implementation.

Conclusion

There are various approaches to solving the problem of meeting the need for personnel in enterprises in Japan, Western Europe and the United States.

The Japanese education system provides for the training of a specialist with a wide profile. It is believed that mastering specific skills of work in any area is the prerogative of a specific organization, not an educational institution. Therefore, the coverage of personnel requirements for lower positions in Japanese enterprises is carried out at the expense of external sources, and the requirements for personnel in higher positions - at the expense of internal sources.

Western European enterprises in many cases give preference to internal sources of covering the need for personnel, although formally the conditions of the competition for filling a vacant position are equivalent for both external applicants and for the company's own employees.

American firms do not distinguish between the importance of internal and external sources of coverage for staffing needs, providing equal opportunities in the selection for a vacant position, both to their employees and to external applicants.

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If we consider the experience of foreign countries in managing the personnel of an enterprise, then the Japanese style of personnel management is distinguished by a manifestation of respect for a person, which is formed due to a lifelong recruitment system, insignificant differentiation of promotion, as well as systematic training and involvement of personnel in management. Lifetime hiring is valuable in making staff feel like they are “all in the same boat”. At the same time, there are many opportunities for staff to move up and increase wages. But the differentiation of workers is negligible, so they find conscientious work beneficial. On the other hand, an emphasis on learning and empowering participation in management improves understanding of the role of one's work. These factors lead to high productivity, responsiveness to innovation and, ultimately, high competitiveness in global markets.

Japanese management based on collectivism used and continues to use moral and psychological levers of influence on the individual. Management specialist Hideki Yoshihara highlighted a number of features that characterize Japanese management.

ь Guarantee of employment and creation of a trusting environment. This leads to a stable workforce and a decrease in staff turnover. Employment guarantee in Japan is provided by a life-long employment system - a phenomenon unique and largely incomprehensible to European thinking.

ь Publicity and openness of corporate values. When all workers have access to information about the policies and activities of the firm, an atmosphere of participation and shared responsibility develops, which improves communication and increases productivity.

b Collection of data and their systematic use to improve the economic efficiency of production and quality characteristics of products. This is emphasized.

b Quality-oriented management. The manager should devote maximum efforts to quality control.

ь Permanent presence of management in production.

ь Maintaining cleanliness and order.

Japanese management can be characterized as striving to improve human relationships, which includes: consistency, employee morale, employment stability, and harmonization of relations between workers and managers.

The Japanese mostly adopted modern management methods from the Americans, but they creatively adapted them to the new conditions and the Japanese mentality. Japanese management contains a number of concepts that distinguish it from a number of management systems in other countries. The most important of them are:

The system of life-long employment and the process of collective decision-making;

Yu concept of lifelong learning, which leads to self-development;

You are receptive to new ideas.

In general, the Japanese management system can be seen as a synthesis of imported ideas and cultural traditions. “Employers do not use only human labor, they use all of it,” is a short formula that explains the relationship between employers and employees.

To maintain discipline and improve the quality of work, Japanese management relies more on rewards (certificates, gifts, money, additional leave) than on punishment (reprimands, fines, dismissals). Japanese managers are extremely reluctant to resort to punishment. And the dismissal of an employee is allowed in cases of theft, acceptance of bribes, sabotage, cruelty, deliberate disobedience to the instructions of senior officials. Thus, personnel management becomes a strategic factor due to the need to guarantee life-long hiring.

The Japanese manager very closely identifies himself with the corporation that hired him. Many employees rarely take rest days and often do not fully utilize their paid leave because they believe it is their duty to work when the company needs it. Local corporations provide job security for their employees and use a seniority-based reward system to prevent the employee from leaving for another firm. An employee who moves to another company loses his seniority and starts all over again. The life-long employment system is based on the guarantee of the worker's employment and on the guarantee of his promotion. The staff is recruited on the basis of personal qualities and biographical data. Loyalty is valued more than competence. In the selection of applicants for top-level management, the greatest importance is attached to the ability to lead people.

Since the late 19th century, the United States has been based on copying the English experience in organization and entrepreneurship. By now, it has formed as an organic fusion of theoretical research and advanced experience. A highly competitive environment and increased susceptibility to new methods contributed to the creation of an effective strategy in the organization of personnel by Americans.

In America, it is customary that a good leader of a small company prefers to communicate directly with his subordinates and ask for their opinion on many issues. If the company has a clearly formulated mission, then it can effectively motivate employees and give them confidence in the importance of the work performed. In American companies, it is believed that each employee is unique, and an individual management method should be applied for each. It is important for subordinates whether the boss helps them in their daily affairs, whether they provide them with career opportunities. For example, if one of the subordinates is interested in leading a department, he should be explained what and how he must do in order to achieve the goal. A manager must show that he provides an opportunity for promotion to absolutely everyone and makes a choice not based on personal likes and dislikes, but on the basis of clear and understandable criteria for everyone.

They can be classified as follows:

§ individual responsibility;

§ the decision is made by the head;

§ business relationship is never combined with personal;

§ the relative autonomy of the heads of individual departments in the enterprise;

§ lack of a sense of loyalty among employees to their company;

§ straightforwardness of the leader's actions (transition to the very essence of issues, their pragmatic classification and their direct solution).

In the United States, the spirit of individualism is very developed, in which everyone takes care of themselves. The spiritual foundation of American management is the Christian religion of the Protestant denomination.

The director of the American corporation General Electric Jack Welsh formulated his 6 principles of management very well:

W to perceive reality as it is, without pretensions to what it was before or what it would like to see;

Ш not to manage, but to direct;

Be sincere with everyone;

Ш introduce changes before they become compelled;

Ш do not enter into competition in the absence of a competitive advantage;

Be in control of your own share, otherwise someone else will do it for you.

There is no clearly formulated national model or concept of management in Russia. The Russian management represents its symbiosis of European and Asian style. The reasons for the lack of a manager's own model are as follows:

short period of market relations in the country;

lack of knowledge, corresponding to international requirements and market conditions, among the majority of Russian leaders;

Functioning of facilities for "roll-off";

minimization of the most preferable spheres of activity;

the multinationality of the country, the size of its territory and differences in the legislation of the tertiary organizations of power facilitate the work of the organizations.

In modern conditions, even a very experienced manager is not always able, without the use of special tools and methods, to objectively compare the advantages and disadvantages of solutions in the field of personnel management and choose the best one. In order to improve the efficiency of personnel management of the enterprise, it is necessary to study foreign styles and methods of personnel management.

For example, certain difficulties arose when trying to export Japanese management abroad. So natural for the employees of this country, the spirit of the firm - the family, when Japanese managers ask their charges about the details of their lives outside the scope of official duties, Europeans and Americans, who became employees of foreign branches of Japanese firms, were perceived as interference in private life.

The following circumstance is absolutely not typical for Japan. Usually, the departure of an employee from the company means his complete isolation from his former colleagues, the severing of all friendly ties with him. It goes without saying that the one who departed cannot go back. There were precedents when employees who accepted offers from other firms returned after some time, and they were taken to positions not lower than those that they held in this firm before. At the same time, all the positive features of Japanese management, such as team orientation, mutual assistance, flexibility, informal definition of the scope of responsibilities and work, interchangeability in Sony are preserved. This combination allows the firm to be successful in both the domestic Japanese and international markets.

There are two departments in Japanese companies, which, in terms of their functions and structure, have no exact counterparts in Western organizations.

One of them is the so-called general affairs department (somu-bu). He deals with legal issues, internal relations, relations with shareholders, government agencies, trade associations and related companies, documentation.

The other is the human resources department (jin-jibu), which is often an offshoot of somu-bu and emerges from it when a company reaches a certain size. It functions as the central unit for all personnel matters.

Human resources management in Japan is more than just one of the many functions common to any business organization, it ranks in the same order of importance as production, sales and financial management. It manifests corporate philosophy and a kind of work organization in the private sector, which can be designated by the term "industrial family".

An industrial family means that a commercial or industrial enterprise is viewed not only as an economic entity, but also (more importantly) as a community of people working here. For most of them, any organization to some extent embodies the image of the human family.

Employees associate their current and future social status, as well as opportunities for physical and spiritual development, in many ways, and sometimes completely, with their company, which takes care of people, including areas not related to the service. This philosophy of entrepreneurship finds its expression in the norm (for economic reasons, it is not always implemented) of long-term employment and the great importance attached to seniority.

Not a single member of the “family” should be left without concern for his future when leaving the company, even in difficult times.

The older members of the “family” are treated more respectfully than the younger ones, because long seniority indicates loyalty to the company and a lot of experience - work and life.

In order for the cohesion in the group to be maintained and strengthened, harmony ("va") must be constantly maintained in it at all levels. Instead of the verdict “you are right, but he is wrong,” you should always seek a compromise.

Staff meetings are held not so much to make a decision or information about it, but to encourage participation in the affairs of the company. Informal and frequent contact is essential to building consensus. In this context, the leader maintains harmony more than pulls or pushes the group.

Since the fate of everyone depends on the fate of the corporation, everyone must be treated equally. Equal does not mean the same. There are socially accepted norms in the country that differentiate people by levels of formal education, length of service, age, post, and even gender.

All this is taken into account in the standard salary system, which covers all permanent workers. In Japanese companies, there is usually a distinction between two levels of human resources management - the company level and the individual level.

At the company level, the human resources department is the central unit dealing with the formal aspects of human resources management. In addition, he assists in all possible ways in the implementation of this leadership at the individual level, at which everyone and everyone - bosses, subordinates and colleagues - must deal with the personal and informal aspects of working with personnel, in other words, harmonizing interpersonal relations on the ground. The central position of the personnel department is organizationally not fixed. It is established by the workers themselves. They usually assume that they have been hired to work for the good of the company and not do a specific job, which indicates a predominance of group orientation over individual orientation. They know that they will be transferred from one job to another, from one department to another, this will change their status in the subdivisional subgroup and the control that the subgroup exercises over them. Their membership in the company remains unchanged. In this sense, they feel constant control from the HR department.

The organizational structure of a Japanese company reflects its corporate philosophy. In the West, where the main thing is economic efficiency, the company is built on the basis of the functional division of labor and therefore tends to a horizontal structure, since each division works independently, in accordance with its specialization. In Japan, where the emphasis is on personal aspects, the structure is based on mutual assistance and hierarchy, and therefore it is rather vertical.

The main divisions of the company are departments ("bu"), sections ("ka") and subsections ("kakari"). It should be noted that there is a clear distinction between white collars (office workers) and blue collars (manual workers). Jinji refers to the cadre management of non-unionized knowledge workers, and Roma refers to blue-collar unionized workers. The HR department is responsible for collecting data on the employee's performance, salary level, working conditions, etc. in related and other companies. Information is obtained through personal contact with colleagues from other companies, as well as visiting specialized government agencies and organizations such as the Ministry of Labor, the Japan Productivity Center, the secretariat of the trade association and especially the Japan Federation of Employers' Association.

Workforce planning, which is closely related to corporate planning, is still an exception in Japan.

Under current business conditions, the following are considered worthy:

Typically, companies keep a close eye on only one long-term metric — a balanced workforce structure. There are two reasons for this. The first is economic: every year a certain number of workers retire when they reach the age limit (when they receive the highest salary). This significantly reduces salary costs as they are replaced by inexperienced high school graduates, who are the least paid in the company. The second reason is that maintaining a specific age structure makes it easier to get promoted.

Being in constant contact with other departments and knowing their annual requirements, the HR department prepares workforce projections for the entire company for the next fiscal year. To do this, he must calculate the maximum number of new graduates to be hired and their initial salary. Human Resources forecasts estimated labor costs. Finally, he puts forward his own budgetary requirements, of which the largest costs are recruiting, training and special costs.

Recruitment, training of personnel, their promotion, disciplinary measures and layoffs, solution of issues related to pay and working conditions, social benefits, as well as labor relations are the prerogative of the HR department. Heads of departments can make their proposals, they are consulted before making a decision.

Overtime is viewed in two ways in Japanese companies. First, its use is more economical than recruiting additional labor to meet fluctuating demand. Secondly, it generates additional income for employees.

Overtime is not considered here a manifestation of the incompetence of production managers or incorrect planning of the use of labor. With the consent of workers' representatives (or trade union), they can be appointed at any time and for any period. Under the Japanese Labor Code, an employer can extend the working hours specified in Art. 7, 32, 40, or assign work on weekends, if he reaches an agreement with a trade union, when there is one and includes the majority of employees of the enterprise, or in the absence of a trade union with persons representing the majority of employees, and submits it in writing to the administrative institution.

However, for underground or other work harmful to health, overtime should not exceed two hours per day.

As a result, in many companies, overtime accounts for about 10-15% of the monthly wages of ordinary workers. The HR department oversees overtime payments. This was the post-war tradition. However, nowadays, young workers tend to avoid overtime, as their free time is often more important than additional earnings. In addition to statutory social benefits (sickness, unemployment and industrial accident insurance) and old-age pensions, there are many other social programs in Japanese companies.

Housing and dormitories, recreational opportunities, cultural programs, housing loans, subsidies for meals and shopping in company stores are all centrally managed by the HR department.

The personnel department also deals with all benefits. For example, in the case of a territorial transfer of an employee of a company, he subsidizes the relocation of the whole family and looks for housing for her.

The ideal for a Japanese company is to recruit a permanent workforce from high school graduates who would remain with the company until the age limit. The selection criteria for applicants are social rather than economic.

A Japanese company generally believes that specialization and division of labor and an emphasis on individual efficiency can harm the efficiency of the company as a whole. Therefore, it is group work and collaboration that is most often encouraged with an emphasis on the interests of the entire corporation.

The recruitment of employees is focused on meeting the general interests of the company, and not on performing a specific job in a specific place. New employees are recruited by the company, not by an individual manager. In the best case, the company invites new employees, indicating a wide range of employment: production, sales, clerical work, etc.

Even when work becomes unnecessary, people are not fired. The company provides them with retraining and transfers them to other locations or to its regional offices.

School graduates with no work experience are recruited every year so that the company can bring them to the appropriate skill level and internalize the culture of the corporation, while maintaining the age structure of the workforce. It is an important indicator of organizational dynamism and the ability to be technically innovative.

The company's annual financial statements always indicate the average age of employees.

In the post-war period, the annual recruitment of workers was carried out in three main groups: secondary school (9 classes of compulsory education, a young person 15 years old), higher school (12 years of study, age 18) and four-year college (16 years of study, age - 22).

Today, the recruitment of high school graduates is very limited, since young people mainly enter high school, and many companies require a workforce with precisely this level of education. High school graduates only find jobs in very small factories and shops.

Most high school graduates are employed in medium and large manufacturing companies as workers, while some of the girls graduates become assistants to clerks or salesmen in large companies in the field of trade and services. University-educated men are recruited as candidates for managerial positions. Girls who graduated from universities are not of interest to large companies, since they most likely will not work for a long time and will get married at about 25 years old.

For many years, Japanese companies did not pay attention to new employees in other categories, such as graduates of two-year colleges (mostly female), vocational schools and schools that award master's degrees. However, now the attitude towards them is changing.

Small businesses are eager to recruit school graduates. It is difficult for them to attract young people with university degrees if they are not well known as rapidly expanding thanks to the application of new technologies. Small firms have to rely on the transfer of able-bodied workers from other companies, inviting people with a certain work experience. They are hired for permanent jobs until April 1 (recruitment date for high school graduates). These workers are less valued than those who came straight from school: for at least several years after joining the company, their salaries are lower and progress is slower.

Large companies turn to this category of workers only in exceptional cases, for example, when the average age of workers rises rapidly, which was typical of some electrical and electronic companies in the late 1960s.

There is usually a kind of tacit agreement not to poach qualified employees from competitors in their industry. In fact, only foreign companies use the services of recruitment agencies to identify the personnel of interest to them from competitors.

Since permanent employment implies long-term work and graduates and companies take their choice seriously. For graduates, first hiring almost always determines their future. When changing jobs for any reason other than family circumstances or company bankruptcy, society suspects either selfish motives (“he only pursues his own financial well-being”) or negative personality traits (“he doesn't work with other people”). It also takes time for the newcomer to be fully accepted by society.

When changing jobs, the person must agree to a lower pay and slower advancement compared to the company's cadre workers.

Most schools organize outreach meetings and consultations for their alumni, post company flyers with job offers on bulletin boards, prepare company information and make recommendations. Where possible and convenient, they invite representatives of large enterprises and companies to meet with alumni, to tell them about a specific industry, to inform them about companies.

The most promising graduates begin to prepare for the choice of a company at the very beginning of the graduation year. This training includes familiarization with the activities of companies, participation in meetings held by the school, conversations with former graduates.

After examining the personal files of the applicants and selecting the most worthy, they are asked to write an essay and then go through the first interview. If the results are satisfactory, candidates are admitted to a second interview and are sometimes tested.

Some companies also conduct group interviews where applicants discuss a given topic with applicants from other schools.

Many companies prioritize informal preliminary interviews. They are conducted in the form of private conversations between job seekers and old employees from the same school who work in the human resources department.

Starting from the second interview, other immediate supervisors can also participate in it, and at the end of the selection procedures, also top officials.

After the final interview, the company makes a preliminary hiring decision and notifies those hired in person or through an old employee. This preliminary decision is required because it is made a few days before the applicant graduates, and a lot can happen before the formal hiring next April.

To prevent those who have been hired by another firm, the company maintains contact with them, for example, holding meetings with employees of the personnel department and other employees, and sometimes with the management of the firm.

There are many judicial precedents establishing that a company cannot reverse a preliminary hiring decision without good reason. However, it can be canceled by the applicant if he has not given a guarantee by that time (some applicants receive several such preliminary invitations).

The company has the opportunity to apply sanctions against those schools whose students regularly violate the preliminary agreement. The sanctions are to reduce the number of invitations for graduates of this school for the next year, or even to completely stop recruiting its graduates.

It is noteworthy that the terms of employment are not discussed during the recruitment process. The company provides the school with the most general information about the state of its affairs. At best, the information states that "wages and conditions are determined by the company's hiring rules."

Now, when a course has been taken on the worldwide use of the human factor in ensuring not just isolated, isolated, although sometimes sensational economic achievements, but a consistently high efficiency of all spheres of social production, a radical reconstruction of the mechanism of labor motivation in our country should become one of the priority tasks of economic strategy ...

This task is unusually difficult and, most importantly, requires a fundamentally new, non-standard, integrated approach that would make it possible to achieve a shift in the genuine, that is, not from case to case, but on an ongoing basis, to mobilize the moral potential of each individual worker and labor force. the team as a whole.

The search for optimal options for orienting personnel towards intensive labor efforts poses the problem of referring to foreign experience.

Taking into account the final indicators of the functioning of the US and Japanese economies shown to the world, it is legitimate to conclude that this experience is fraught with many temptations. It is useful, however, to anticipate any shift in the plane of the established in these countries systems of management of workers by their comprehensive study and assessment.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
ELETSKY STATE UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER I.A. BUNINA

Faculty of Economics
Department of Management

Course work
in the discipline "Management Theory"
on the topic: Features of personnel management in different countries

Introduction ………………………………………………………………………… 3
1. The concept and features of the management of Russian enterprises in comparison with foreign ones …………………………………………………… .6
1.1 Features of the organization of personnel management ……………………… .6
1.2. The specifics of management in Russia ……………………………… .. ……… 12
2. Principles and features of the application of the Japanese management system ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2.1 The main features of Japanese governance ………………………………………… ... …… 15
2.2 Management decisions, management style and concept ………….… ..18
3.American model of management …………………………………….… ..22
3.1. Theoretical aspects of the American model of personnel management ……………………………………………………………………… ..22
3.2. Analysis of the American model of personnel management at enterprises ……………………………………………. …………………. ………………… ..31
Conclusion................................................. .................................................. ....... 36 Bibliography .......................................... .................................................. ........... 38

Introduction

The chosen topic is currently very relevant, since the peculiarities of management in various countries have always been in the spotlight.
Modern conditions of activity of industrial enterprises require the creation of an effective personnel management system of the enterprise, the development of its personnel potential.
In this situation, there is a need for a theoretical rethinking of personnel processes, the development of a methodology for the formation of a strategy and tactics for the effective use of personnel of industrial enterprises, contributing to the rise and development of domestic industry, ensuring their competitiveness both in domestic and international markets.
The insufficiently high level of professional training of some of the personnel of industrial enterprises complicates their adaptation to modern requirements, which makes the theoretical development of socio-economic mechanisms for the training and reproduction of highly qualified workers of industrial enterprises with a high level of general and specialized education especially significant and relevant.
It should be noted that at present, a particularly acute problem facing industrial enterprises is the creation of personnel management services that meet the requirements of modern management, their own effective training systems, retraining and advanced training of personnel, including workers of industrial enterprises, since it was created in Soviet times the system of their professional training has practically been eliminated.
At the same time, in the existing scientific research, insufficient attention is paid to the problems of forming an effective personnel management system of industrial enterprises and preserving their personnel potential, the concept, practice and prospects of its development, creating an effective training system of its own, retraining and advanced training of employees of enterprises, a search and selection system. leading cadres.
There is practically no methodology for the development and creation of an effective management system for the professional and qualification development of the personnel potential of industrial enterprises. The quantity and quality of the available publications does not correspond to the acuteness and relevance of the solution of the corresponding problems.
The object of the research is Russian and foreign experience in personnel management.
The subject of the research is the processes of enterprise personnel management in various conditions.
The purpose of this course work is to study the experience of personnel management of an enterprise both in Russia and abroad.

Specifying the goal, it should be noted that in the course of writing the work, the following tasks should be solved.